Indigenous Knowledge, Indigenous Experiences with Residential Schools and Sixties’ Scoop, and their Impact on Emotional Knowledge for Pre-service Teachers

The purpose of this 2019-2020 exploratory study is to examine pre-service teachers’ knowledge and perceptions of Indigenous Peoples and how emotional knowledge could efficiently integrate this sensitive aspect of Canadian history into the B.Ed. Program. Shen et al. (2009) state that emotions improve learning and facilitate retention in long-term memory. Could emotional knowledge be a way of integrating Indigenous knowledge in the Bachelor of Education programs? Could Indigenous experiences with Indigenous Peoples make a difference in the perception of Indigenous Peoples in pre-service teachers? For this study, the sample available to the researcher consisted of 22 pre-service teacher students. The research instruments were a questionnaire about pre-service teachers’ knowledge of Blanket Exercises, Residential Schools, and Sixties’ Scoop, and reflection papers on the same topics. The results show that 72% of Canadian pre-service teachers, who attended elementary and secondary schools, had some, very little or no knowledge of these topics before the former Prime Minister, Stephen Harper, apologized to former students of Residential Schools for the harm inflicted to them. After listening to Indigenous Survivors and being part of Blanket Exercises, pre-service teachers’ perception of Indigenous Peoples changed in a range of 26% to 100%.


Introduction
Research on Indigenous language, culture, and pedagogy has gained momentum after Prime Minister Stephen Harper apologized to students of Indian Residential Schools on behalf of Canadians in 2008 for the harm inflicted to them in the Residential Schools: "Two primary objectives of the Residential Schools system were to remove and isolate children from the influence of their homes, families, traditions, and cultures and to assimilate them into the dominant culture. These objectives were based on the assumption that Aboriginal cultures and spiritual beliefs were inferior and unequal. Indeed, some sought, as it was infamously said, 'to kill the Indian in the child.' Today, we recognize that this policy of assimilation was wrong, has caused great harm, and has no place in our country. The government recognizes that the absence of an apology has been an impediment to healing and reconciliation.
Therefore, on behalf of the Government of Canada and all Canadians, I stand before you, in this Chamber so central to our life as a country, to apologize to Aboriginal peoples for Canada's role in the Indian Residential Schools system." (Government of Canada, Statement of apology to former students of Indian Residential Schools, June 11, 2008).
To redress the wrongs made to Indigenous peoples, a Truth and Reconciliation Commission was

Literature Review
The history of the residential school system (Miller, 1996) shows that treaties prepared the framework for a devastating experience for Indigenous Peoples (White, Maxim, & Beavon, 2003). The Davin report (1879) encouraged the opening of numerous Residential Schools whose purpose was cultural assimilation into Canadian society. White and Peters (2009)  compulsory for ten months of the year for all Indigenous children over age six." (p. 17). "Residential Schools were places of emotional, physical, and sexual abuse. Students were taught to be ashamed of their culture." (p.19). "Few students progressed past primary grades regardless of how many years were spent in school." (p. 18). The 1940s-1950s was a re-evaluation period of government education policy.
A government committee proposed that Residential Schools be closed, stating that they were not successful. According to the committee, students should enter the provincial school system (Bear, 2001). However, this change was not successful either as the dropout rates of Indigenous students from high school reached almost 94% (Canada Indian Affairs Branch, 1967). While the government initiated the closing of Residential Schools in the 1970s, the last one closed its doors in 1996. It is estimated that 150,000 First Nations, Metis, and Inuit children attended Residential Schools. Many did not survive the horrific conditions.
In 1951, the Indian Act was amended (Section 88) and stated that the provinces would have jurisdiction over the welfare of Indigenous children. This amendment created the framework for the "Sixties' Scoop" and facilitated the process of placing thousands of Indigenous children in foster homes for adoption (Blackstock, 2001). In 1981, 83% of First Nations children were adopted by middle-class Caucasian families (Bagley et al., 1993). Patrick Johnston (1983), in his report for the Canadian Council for Social Development, was the first one to use the term of Sixties' Scoop for this phenomenon. The impact of Johnston's report called for amendments to the Child Welfare Policy (Mosher et al., 2018). Priority of adoption for Indigenous children was given to extended Indigenous families, then to Indigenous families and, finally, to non-Indigenous families (Kimelman, 1985).
It is undeniable that the Sixties' Scoop adoptions had long-term effects on Indigenous adults: the loss of cultural identity, low self-esteem, shame, and the list could continue (Sinclair & Dainard, 2016 Scoop. It is crucial to consider how learning and knowledge are both acquired and kept in the brain. Anderson (1983,1985,1992) proposes a learning theory, the Adaptive Control of Thought (ACT), in which he 52 describes three types of memory structures: declarative, procedural, and working memory. In this theory, knowledge begins as declarative information (what we know or static information) and becomes procedural knowledge (what we know how to do or dynamic information). The working memory (limited capacity) is associated with activating, or retrieving, or manipulating information. Tyng et al. (2017) add another dimension to knowledge and state that emotion has a crucial impact on the cognitive processes facilitating encoding and retrieval of information. Tyng et al. (2017) point out that emotions are critical in every aspect of cognition as they could increase or diminish learning and long-term memory retention. Therefore, Shen et al. (2009) also point out that the emotional aspect should be considered in designing educational courses to engage the students, improve learning, and facilitate retention in the long-term memory. The results of several studies show that human cognitive processes are affected by emotions, as well as attention, learning, and memory (Phelps, 2004;Um et al., 2012;Vuilleumier, 2005). Bratianu (2015) talks about three kinds of knowledge: rational knowledge, emotional knowledge, and spiritual knowledge. Even though these three notions are used in management and leadership, the concept of emotional knowledge will be retained because the emotional thought echoes the relationship between emotions and cognitive activities (Immordino-Yang & Damasio, 2007). Emotional knowledge can also be related to decisions (Hill, 2008). Bratianu (2015) states, "Breakthrough in brain science have revealed that people are primarily emotional decision-makers" (p. 2). Emotional thought is defined as a "large overlap between cognition and emotion.
[…] encompasses processes of learning, memory, and decision making, in both social and non-social contexts." (Immordino-Yang & Damasio, 2007, p. 8). Research in the neurosciences and the affective domain has changed the established relationship where cognition is related to objectivity and emotion to subjectivity. These two domains should be seen as interrelated continuous processes (Damasio, 2012;Hill, 2008;LeDoux, 2002;Robinson, Watkins, & Harmon-Jones, 2013). It is essential to go beyond the cognitive and metacognitive activities for learning in education and add emotional knowledge to the curriculum (Chia & Holt, 2008;Miller, Wesley, & Williams, 2012).
It is reasonable to think that declarative knowledge is what pre-service teachers learn in a First Nations course through lectures; procedural knowledge is what they do with that knowledge, which is kept in their long-term memory. Now, regarding the emotional knowledge, it is how they will keep and transmit this knowledge. This is where the interaction between cognition and emotion takes place, and a decision is made on how pre-service teachers will approach the sensitive Indigenous history in their future classrooms.

Research Objective
The purpose of this two-year, 2019-2020, exploratory study is to examine pre-service teachers' knowledge and perceptions of Indigenous Peoples and try to find a way to efficiently integrate this sensitive aspect of Canadian history into the B.Ed. Courses.

Research Questions
• Should there be a change in the teaching and learning practices? 53 • How could the course on Curriculum and Instruction in Social Studies be transformational?
• How could pre-service teachers change their perception of Indigenous Peoples?
• Could Indigenous experiences with Indigenous Peoples make a difference in the perception of Indigenous Peoples in pre-service teachers?
• Could emotional knowledge be a way to integrate Indigenous knowledge in the Bachelor of Education Programs?

Methods
This research is a two-year (2019-2020) exploratory study that examines pre-service teachers' knowledge of First Nations history and how to prepare pre-service teachers to efficiently approach this sensitive aspect of Canadian history in their future classrooms. The sample available to the researcher consists of 22 pre-service teacher students; 15 of them were four-year B.Ed., and seven were two-year After Degree B.Ed. students.

Curriculum and Instruction in Elementary Social Studies course is delivered in the third year for the
Four-Year B.Ed. Degree, and in the second year for After-Degree students. It is an intensive professional course, just before their first practicum.
The research instrument was a questionnaire about their knowledge of Sixties' Scoop, Residential Schools, and Blanket Exercises. The responses were supported with reflection papers written after listening to the stories on Sixties' Scoop and Residential Schools shared by two Elders, a married couple. The wife's family, middle-class, fostered and adopted Indigenous children during the Sixties' Scoop period. The husband is a Survivor of the Residential School system and witnessed the suffering of Sixties' Scoop Survivors. The 2019 presentation took place in a teepee tent where the students sat in a circle around a fire, and they had Indigenous blankets with them. It was a presentation in an Indigenous way of teaching and learning. At the end of the presentation, the students asked questions.
After a period of questions, the students used the talking stick to share their perceptions and opinions. It was at the end of the course that the students completed the questionnaire. All the students of the 2019-2020 class agreed to complete the questionnaire. The 2020-2021 presentation took place online; because of COVID-19 regulations, and only four students completed the survey.

Results
The results of this survey are presented in graphs. Comments will be added to each graph.

Figure 1. Gender
In Canada, in June 2014, the percentages were distributed as follows: 68% females and 32% males; in 2017-2019, 76% females and 24% males. The trend of most females in the Canadian education field is still in force.

Figure 2. Year of Birth
As the graph shows, there is diversity in the years of birth. It is accurate to say that only one student was willing to become a teacher after finishing high school, and four students began to study one year 55 after finishing high school. More mature students are entering the teaching profession, and this is observed not only in the After-Degree students but also in the Four-Year B.Ed. Degree.

Figure 3. Country of Birth
Canada is a country where diversity is welcomed and valued. In this study, even though diversity is welcomed, the majority are Canadian students born in Canada.

Figure 4. Number of Years in Canada If not Born in Canada
The number of students not born in Canada is all mature students, and they have been living in Canada between five and 23 years.

Figure 5. Attended Elementary or High School in Canada
The percentage of students who attended both elementary and secondary schools is high (72%). The 28% left were mature students who were pursuing a Four-Year B.Ed. Degree.

Figure 6. Where Did You Study the History of Indigenous Peoples?
Of all the students born in Canada and attended elementary and secondary schools, 70% indicated that they studied the Indigenous Peoples' history when they were in high school. Peoples considering their suffering could change the pre-service teachers' perception.

Figure 10. Has Your View towards Indigenous Peoples Changed after Watching the Movie?
This high percentage of 61% could show the interconnection between declarative and emotional knowledge. In the 39% of students whose view towards Indigenous Peoples did not change, there was a mature Canadian student and the four youngest students. These students were the same students who expressed two or more feelings after watching the movie.   Vol. 2, No. 2, 2021 The emotion reaching the highest percentage about the Sixties' Scoop was sadness, and it was also the highest percentage for the movie "We Were Children." Student # 01 "My initial thoughts were shock, anger, sadness, and how unaware I was of these horrendous events that took place in our very own communities." Student # 02 "I feel like I developed so much more empathy for their people and a deeper understanding of the pain, loss, and suffering they endured." Student # 03 "Babies desperately need love and physical touch to live; it is appalling that babies would be so "Sitting around the fire with blankets was a special memory that I will remember and treasure. Hearing about the Sixties' Scoop from both an Indigenous Elder and also a family member who had adopted siblings was really eye-opening."

Student # 08
"Thinking about children being purposely ripped from their families because they wanted to 'take the Indian out of them' is so uneducated and inappropriate that my mind cannot even wrap around the concept." Student # 09 "The whole presentation was very emotional, which just made it more meaningful to me." Student # 10 "Not only was it sad to hear that the speaker's siblings felt out of place and confused, but it was more disheartening to hear that her family didn't even know that they were part of the assimilation plan."

Student # 11
"It deeply saddened my heart to know that so many people suffer from the Sixties' Scoop still today, and many of them have yet to find who they are and their own identity."
www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/elsr Education, Language and Sociology Research Vol. 2, No. 2, 2021 Student # 12 "My heart hurts for those mothers whose children were basically stolen from them and for those children who grew up missing a piece of their identity." The percentage of students who knew about the Blanket Exercise before attending university reaches 33%. It is reasonable to think that the majority of students did not know much about this activity. This activity illustrates the history of Indigenous Peoples and how it affected their lives and land. 65 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/elsr Education, Language and Sociology Research Vol. 2, No. 2, 2021

Figure 15. How Did You Feel after Participating in the Blanket Exercise?
Like in the other activities, i.e., the movie, Elders' presentation, and Blanket Exercises, sadness reached the highest percentage.

Aforementioned Indigenous Activities Have Changed Your Perception towards Indigenous
Peoples?
The highest percentages on how much the movie, Elders' presentation, and Blanket Exercise have changed the students' perception varied between 26% and 100%. It is realistic to say that all three activities impacted most students and changed their perception towards Indigenous Peoples. It is also reasonable to think that the students who did not have particular feelings about the Blanket Exercise, and whose change of perception ranged between 0% and 26%, was because they had already experienced this activity and had close contact with Indigenous Peoples. 66 "Our history is unfortunate and has some serious ugly parts in it, but I believe it is crucial to educate future students about mistakes we have made as a society." "I hope that as a teacher, I can spread the light of love and culture to all my students." "I think what I learned today has helped me become better prepared for teaching First Nations Students." "As teachers, we need to be intentional about including Indigenous ways of knowing into our lessons." "I want to be as understanding and educated as I can so that I can reach my First Nations students." "I think it is important to educate our students on these topics so that it never happens again."

Interact and Learn?
The results show that most pre-service teachers are interested in learning more about how Indigenous children learn. The students who said, "maybe" have already experienced close contact with Indigenous children.

Conclusions
The results of this study show a lack of knowledge of pre-service teachers regarding Indigenous The results also show that 89% of pre-service teachers are willing to learn more about how Indigenous children learn and to offer them a safe environment in their future classrooms. University professors can be specialists in social studies, but only Indigenous Peoples are specialists in emotional knowledge.
It is their history.
It would be naïve to think that the results of this small sample could make Canadian universities overcome the challenge to integrate the Indigenous historical reality in the Bachelor of Education Programs. More research is needed. Still, it is reasonable to assume that experiential and emotional knowledge could potentially change the perception of Indigenous Peoples as demonstrated in this study.