Racial Apartheid Education: The Politics of Online Learning, Traditional Education, Self Learning, and Independent Study in the United States

Unfortunately, there has been vehement debates throughout the United States about how we should educate our students—that is, whether we should use a hybrid mix of educational tools, to impart knowledge to all Americans. For example, will virtual learning be embraced by all educational institutions? Not surprisingly, online education is a frequent topic of conversation with teachers, professors, administrators, and other educators. Still, there is uncertainty about what some of our venerable education institutions should do. Suffice it to say, colleges and universities must underscore the importance of providing a first-class education for all its people. For example, African American students shouldn’t be denied educational opportunities. At stake: Minority students might be left behind. Indeed, education diversity will become a self-perpetuating problem if blacks and other students are left behind, particularly because of a lack of technology access. Furthermore, a long-overdue, educational reckoning with systemic racism in all systems and levels of education is in order. It is important to be on-point about these controversial matters. Meanwhile, education groups in the United States are struggling with ideas of incorporating distance education programs, Independent Study, and virtual learning in respective curriculums; but are such notions really about educating all our children? Needless to say, the increasing importance of online education has become the so-called new thing. But the jury is still out on whether such education technology can be effectively put in place for all students. In this regard, some colleges and universities haven’t entirely lived up to certain educational principles. No doubt, the internal struggles for

skills to enable them to succeed in their college, business, and professional lives." Additionally, "50 percent of [our] students who enter college never graduate" (p. 8). The question is: Why? Is it because some students lack academic discipline or interest? Columnist for The New York Times, David Brooks (2015) explains: Universities are more professional and glittering than ever, but in some ways there is emptiness deep down. Students are taught how to do things, but many are not forced to reflect on why they should do them or what [they] are [there] for. They are given many career options, but they are on their own when it comes to developing criteria to determine which vocation would lead to the fullest life. (p. 3) After all, as already intimated, students are "attending college so they can get a good job and make more money. They [students] want to end up [as] authorities in their fields; [and] they want to end up well off financially" (Brinson, 1999, p. 17B). This objective is, perhaps, indelibly etched into the minds of almost every American student. Nevertheless, and unbeknown to most Americans, "about one in three students who enroll in college never earn a degree" (Leonhardt & Chinoy, 2019, p. 8).
Investigative reporters Davis Leonhardt and Sahil Chinoy "suggest that the problem isn't the students-it's the schools" (p. 8). This means that some colleges and universities will likely be negatively affected by their actions toward gullible students. It should also be noted that: "The for-profit college industry is struggling under the weight of declining enrollment, stiff competition from traditional universities and an image battered by past misdeeds" (Danilova & Lardner, 2020, p. 16A); and many exist without accreditation. So are "for-profit" schools more like a Kafkaesque education situation? Perhaps. We must keep in mind that "for-profit" schools in the United States have been the bane of traditional, public education. Therefore, traditional colleges and universities shouldn't take anything for granted, despite the obvious educational headaches from "for-profit" schools. Moreover, we must highlight the principal merits of our traditional education systems. Meanwhile, traditional colleges and universities in the United States shouldn't misrepresent themselves, or their own distance education programs, because virtual learning for some students is educationally unfriendly or remotely untenable. Indeed, some American students are having a hard time adjusting to the technology, which is at the heart of the distance education issue today, as it is not the conventional way of educating our students.
Admittedly, a virtual learning environment (or online/remote learning) doesn't work for some students, as it can be impersonal and frustrating. It has even been argued that "in-person" instruction is better than online education. No doubt, some of our students believe that they can only learn by instruction in the classroom. Or, they can learn "more from in-person instruction" (Quintana, 2020, p. 2D) (Note 1).
More importantly, some American students may feel disconnected from each other with distance education. Simply put, there is no substitute for "in-person" instruction. Equally important, some "Instructors may deal with new technologies and ways of teaching that [might] leave them uncomfortable" (p. 2D). Moreover, it may be harder to find appropriate educators or academics who 66 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fet Frontiers in Education Technology Vol. 3, No. 4, 2020 want to teach online or virtually. Education expert Julie Yaeger (2019), however, tells us that: "Technology can provide dynamic tools for monitoring student achievement, timely communication with parents and guardians and at times increase student engagement" (p. 7) (Note 2). But, with computer technology, will colleges and universities damage the long-term hopes of U.S. students to achieve their educational goals to graduate? This question comes across most clearly when schools work hard to set-up unchanging, or entrenched, but appropriate educational priorities, including distance learning programs, and "classroom instruction that encourages a balance of technological and non-technological opportunities for learning" (p. 7). Hence, we must continue to take such practical approaches that would allow all students to be educated. Paradoxically, at the back end of our traditional educational spectrum, we must consider that some students and "many individuals choose to develop their intelligences" by other means, like "personal study and [even] individualized learning projects" (Armstrong, 1993, p. 163). So will distance learning/education, with computer technology, and flexible courses, become the way we educate ourselves (or students) in the 21 st century, and beyond?
Equally significant, will students and others gain the same level of educational expertise (online) needed to have a successful life and career? According to educator R. Lee Viar (2019): Online degree programs can be challenging, and are sometimes even more difficult than some of their on-campus counterparts because they require the adult learner to be more self-disciplined and manage their time effectively. However, the convenience of online [education] is the tipping point that enables many adult learners the opportunity to earn their degrees while working around their own schedule. (p. 10)

The Failure of School Admission Standards
By and large, technology is like a seismic, learning shift when it comes to educating all students.
However, it is not the panacea for all our education problems in the United States. Furthermore, we must keep in mind that, "technology is also forcing [educational] change [s]," particularly at the higher education level. This is also to say that, "Online course[s] make the transmission of [educational] information a commodity" (Brooks, 2015, p. 3). Professor of education, Thomas Armstrong (1993)  shouldn't be a reason to cheat, to get students through the doors of these great places of higher learning.
Additionally, we shouldn't look at student education through totally political lens, which might help with our admission problems-at all education levels. Moreover, myopically focused debates about such controversial matters can be counter-productive or counterintuitive to our education goals. Indeed, this education lethargy must be overcome in the United States-that is, if we are to be fair and honest with our students, especially when it comes to admission standards. Even more important, we must "look at [different education] technology and use it to better engage students on their [own] terms" (Murray, 2018, p. 34). No doubt, focusing on these education matters will (positively) influence all American students, and their capacity to learn, without cheating in some way.

The Education of Older American Students
While assessing more significant opportunities, many older students/learners who lack higher education, specific credentials, or a college degree are going back into the college classroom, in record numbers.
This is a very good thing, indeed, because older adult students are highly motivated, competent, and usually complete the classroom work/lessons and assignments without much prompting. Older students also question things that don't seem realistic, or practical. Or they might ask about academic things that sound suspicious or wrong, to make the best decisions about their education. Furthermore, according to educator Laurie Carlson (1989), "some of the major obstacles faced by [older] adults trying to obtain education or training" include the following: • On-campus residency requirements. 68 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fet Frontiers in Education Technology Vol. 3, No. 4, 2020 • Classes offered at inconvenient times.
• Unavailability of the courses they want to take.
• Home and job responsibilities.
• Commuting to class.
• Credits taken at a previous school are not accepted at another school.
• Living too far from a campus.
• Child care; and • Fear of competing against younger students in a classroom. (pp. 9-10) As a practical matter, these obstacles must be continuously addressed by adult student/learners. Older students might also start a traditional academic career only to find the classwork too hard, or educationally stifling (Bronner, 1997, p. C23), and finally give up. Therefore, older adult learners/students are trying to learn, and educate themselves through alternative methods, like rigorous online classes, because they are "focused on trying to find opportunities that match… their specific career path, which is challenging [traditional] institutions to rethink their [education] models." Essentially, this means that the "on-ground experience or full degree experience doesn't [always] meet the demands of today's [older student or] learner" (Murray, 2018, p. 34). Therefore, older students/learners can educate themselves online, and receive a (higher) degree without leaving home or attending the hollowed grounds, so to speak, of a brick and mortar school. In the final analysis, this is, again, a good thing. Ultimately, we should all be interested to see what direction our education endeavors take when it comes to educating the older student/learner.

Racial Apartheid Education and Minority Students
Angry voices (in the United States) from some minority parents criticize the "traditional college curricula as [being] shamefully distorted due to an emphasis which they view as overly white, excessively male, and skewed far too much toward European cultures and values" (Davis, 1994, p. 11).
To say the least, there must be tailored learning strategies for proactive, traditional and online classes, and/or remote learning, which should include minority students, without equivocation. In this regard, it is essential for colleges and universities to pay close attention to the various stakes for U.S. education, while opening up schools to all students, regardless of the color of their skin, or financial backgrounds.
In other words, if we are to be successful with our goals, systemic racism must be addressed at all levels of education. It also should be remembered that: Being poorer, black children are more likely to attend substandard schools, and less likely to graduate from college, than whites. This depresses future earning power, and keeps blacks over-represented in jobs that offer no benefits or retirement plans.  10). It is also more than disturbing that poor black American students and other minority students cannot even afford a lap-top or other computer technology. It is also suggested that minority students are hurt the most by distance education, because they don't have access to wireless Internet connection.
So can these American students really be educated correctly, and remotely via online classes if they cannot afford to pay for the necessary Internet technology? The major problem is that online education can (absolutely) reinforce racial segregation, making some U.S. schools more unequal. Hence, diversity is critical for educational institutions, even if classes are held online. It also should be made abundantly clear that American colleges and universities must make education accessible to all students, all things being equal, even if it means providing the specific technology needed for at-risk or high-risk minority students. Otherwise, these vulnerable, poor students might fall behind academically. This issue should be of primary concern for U.S. educational institutions, particularly as it concerns learning traditionally, or online. Either way, it is more democratic if our society educates students from all ethnic groups in the same way. In general, as Pulitzer Prize winners Will and Ariel Durant (1968) write: "If equality of educational opportunity can be established, democracy [in the United States] will be real and justified. For this is the vital truth beneath its catchwords: that though men cannot be equal, their access to education and opportunity can be made more nearly equal" (p. 79) (Note 11). Which is to say that educating minority students in America has always been shown to help them rise above their poverty-stricken existence. Therefore, qualified minority and low-income students should be accepted at prestigious schools, no matter their financial circumstances.
Coincidentally, this take on educating minority students in the U.S. begs the question: Should all students "demand that college curricula devote substantial attention to the role of women, minorities and other long-excluded or neglected groups and cultures?" (Davis, 1994, p. 11)

Self Learning and Traditional Education
Unfortunately, some American students, perhaps, "in both external and traditional [education] programs consider their efforts to earn a degree [as] nothing more than a credit chase-[or] a race to accumulate as many credits as possibly by any means available" (Duffy, 1994, p. 25), to graduate. But higher education must never be a zero-sum game, where the wealthy are always winners and marginalized people are the losers. Furthermore, it should be established that some adult learners are brilliant, self-educated, and have no need for some kind of educational structure or guidance, like Sir Richard Branson, Bill Gates or the late Steve Jobs, to name a few individuals. These wealthy men prevailed and became experts in their respective fields, without a college degree. Which is to say that they succeeded by their own devices, while conducting complicated research and becoming self-made scholars and authorities in their own right. Self-learners, therefore, believe that they can achieve success without higher education or a college degree. Although he was highly educated, Albert Einstein was a Swiss patent clerk, while working on his general theory of relativity; and he would later become the world's most famous physicist ("Great People," 1996, pp. 132-135), and an American citizen, teaching at Princeton University.
Einstein, of course, was considered a genius, a self-learner, and a great problem solver, while often working on his own; but while at the University of Zurich, he was not a very attentive student.
Nevertheless, Einstein was still able to graduate. So why was he so different? Davis Lewis and James Green (1982) explained it this way: For his tremendous contribution to human knowledge, Einstein has justly been termed a genius. But this does not mean that his brain was uniquely different or that he possessed intellectual abilities that must always lie beyond the range of most people. Like so many great thinkers, his performance in school was dismal and only a frenzied bout of last-minute studying, together with extensive coaching from his friends, allowed him to pass his final [university] examination. (pp. 240-241) As professor Ronald Gross (1993) has pointed out, "Independent scholars," and self-learners, like Einstein, and others in the United States, "are often impelled by social purpose.

Independent Study and Continuing Education
Independent Study also becomes part of the education equation, because it defies the traditional education norms of colleges and universities, and other educational avenues/outlets. Therefore, Independent Study, or learning through an extensive reading program, is also important because it allows the student the flexibility to learn and grow without constraints, possible roadblocks or other limitations. Thus, Independent Study shouldn't be an objectionable endeavor when it comes to education. More importantly, "earning [a higher] degree through alternative methods," like with Independent Study, "can be an exciting and rewarding experience" (Duffy, 1994, p. 25), or proposition. American educators and administrators must be willing to shift gears, and preemptively strategize to provide such independent ways and means to achieve a higher education degree. Therefore, should American colleges and universities and other schools embrace Independent Study entirely in some way?
Probably not. Nonetheless, our educational institutions must seriously look at alternative ways to solve our collective education/learning problems. This is why incorporating Independent Study in the curriculum is extremely important. To say the least, this method allows adult learners or students to explore what they want and to research education topics without any rigid or set formulas. Indeed, students are not at the mercy of an educator's ability or lack thereof, to teach, because they are essentially in charge of themselves, and can get out what they put into the effort (Carlson, 1989, p. 3).
As students in pursuit of advanced degrees in the United States, we must all take these independent matters about education to heart, along with advanced and strategic learning, particularly using computers, and the Internet in higher education. Hence, the educator and student can, perhaps, ascertain in this paper that, the use of computer technology at higher education institutions is increasing exponentially. We should also bear in mind that attaining a diploma/degree from an innovative, non-traditional institution (or a directed Independent Study program) offers a holistic alternative for already accomplished individuals.
In addition, when it comes to higher education, we should not only expand the (set/established) curriculum; but American colleges and universities must also consider implementing different, creative and nontraditional ways to acquire knowledge. Such unique approaches can also be a learning experience for teachers and educators as well. When it is all said and done, American high schools, colleges and universities should definitely give our students a first-class, liberal arts education, but they should also give us educational alternatives, or options, like specific programs on the Internet that are dynamic, interactive, flexible and user-friendly. Such actions will expose our students to the larger educational world, no matter their learning difficulties. But it should also be noted that at the highest 72 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fet Frontiers in Education Technology Vol. 3, No. 4, 2020 academic levels, "remote [or online] schooling poses a special challenge for [American] families who are not fluent in English" (Rani, 2020, p. 4) (Note 13). Journalist Rikha Sharma Rani (2020) writes: "About five million American schoolchildren are classified as English-language learners, meaning they lack fluency, and even more come from homes where their parents speak a different language" (p. 4).
Rani goes on to point out that, online education isn't exactly ideal for non-English-speaking students.
However, in the grand scheme of our educational universe, all students "need a much broader understanding of world cultures" (Davis, 1994, p. 11), and higher learning/education in the United States. Generally speaking, higher education allows students to expand their minds and their interests, because there is always something new to learn. Disappointingly, however, some conservative politicians in the United States have "complained that American higher education [is] in sharp decline due to the cumulative effects of affirmative action, moral relativism, political correctness, soft graduation requirements, abandonment of traditional subject matter, grade inflation, and lower course requirements" (p. 11). Of course, this harsh assessment isn't entirely true: but the political dimensions of this education issue can't be simply ignored, given that some American schools are dealing with constant uncertainty. And perhaps such criticism is how it should be, as it provides a snapshot of some of our national education woes. For example, it will be interesting for our schools to monitor exactly how educating American students in the future will be divided between in-class or online/virtual education. Or will we have a patchwork of education systems in the United States? Or should we start over when it comes to our national education system? Probably not. One more thing: The negative and positive education implications of our U.S. education system can be long term, at every level (see Figure 1).

Conclusions
Ironically, some of the controversial things brought out in this paper don't change the fact that distance education, as well as other educational alternatives, will continue for the near future. Even more critically, traditional colleges and universities must be able to shift to online/remote teaching, or some kind of hybrid education at any given moment for the good of the student. Notwithstanding, as education journalist JoAnn Tyler Arlington (1996)  Furthermore, traditional education, Independent Study, distance learning, or the use of the Internet for all American schools, colleges and universities is not only the wave of the future, but many higher education institutions will probably not survive (or operate effectively) unless they make use of such rapidly expanding computer technology. In so many words, effective distance learning cannot happen without the appropriate technology. This is also to say that our education systems might (one day) be totally dependent on computers, "coupled with software such as electronic mail, calendar automation, [online conferencing], and [respective,] shared databases" (Ramos & Schroeder, 1994, p. 164) (Note 15). Therefore, we must not pooh-pooh or demonize the technology of online teaching, learning and/or distance education. By almost any education metric, learning by computer access in the future is not an anomaly or just a technological fluke; but it just might be an affordable way to earn an education, and precious knowledge. This means that a person (or student) will be able to start and complete college without going on some campus, by using computers connected to appropriate American education institutions that offer such courses and other educational requirements. This is what distance learning and nontraditional education is all about: Independent Work/Learning. To be certain, the Internet is an invaluable tool in the education process for most educational institutions in the United States (Ramo, 1996, p. 58) (Note 16). However, some students might pose the question: Why aren't they learning anything practical, or things that will help them in the real world? American students might also ask: Why should they care about history, philosophy or political science? Furthermore, are today's academic institutions responsible for assuring a student have a successful career, an important position or a job?
Of course not. Or how can American schools guarantee equality of outcome? Moreover, why are some students even questioning an educator's ability to teach? Should we assume that they know more? 75 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fet Frontiers in Education Technology Vol. 3, No. 4, 2020 Probably not. Nevertheless, some American students often complaint about the competencies of their teachers, and the efficacy of online or distance education programs, where they "are expected to learn quite a bit as a result of an extensive [independent] reading program" (Duffy, 1994, p. 25 American students are still having trouble accepting the fact that online learning will be a serious component of higher education. Or many students, perhaps, see it as earning an educational degree the hard way. The truth is that any prevarication on distance education really doesn't work. Moreover, these consequential and educational things cannot be pushed aside, because "in-class" teaching or learning online goes hand-in-hand. But does online learning increase the risk of some minority students dropping out of school entirely? Perhaps. And given this question, we must still worry about Wi-Fi connectivity, which is worrisome for some American students, educators and schools that are out of (respective) technology ranges. In this regard, also, we must consider the negative consequences when African American students and other students of color are unable to have Internet access, because they might not be able to afford Wi-Fi connection, to study effectively online. Indeed, can American colleges and universities manage the remote learning concerns of minority students and engender their active participation? Perhaps. Which is to say, will schools in the United States pay for the necessary technology to connect all disadvantaged students? After all, low-income students should be educated in the same way with Wi-Fi connection. But remote learning might not apply to some at-risk students-that is, if they don't have the ability to access the Internet, like with poor and homeless American students. Therefore, online training and distance educational planning at respective U.S. schools must be of paramount importance. In addition, minority students and educators must have reliable Internet devices and connection, to achieve positive education results.
More important, American colleges and universities should be obligated to prevent the discrimination of all students, while providing traditional online-centric education, without violating the civil rights of students of color when providing particular or specific, educational classes. For some American schools, it is uncharted territory, as they are in the throes of eliminating racial apartheid education, and creating more diverse places for learning. More controversially, there is still racial bias, as pointed out in this  3, No. 4, 2020 education, our nation is woefully behind the power curb when it comes to rooting out the inequality that still remains in our school systems. Therefore, encouraging diversity in our schools is the way to go, because it helps with "a more equitable education system" (Chklovski, 2020, p Suffice it to say, distance education for all Americans is paramount for a strong democracy. And when it comes to online learning, we must take the long view. This is to say that our colleges and universities must make adjustments and do their due diligence to incorporate distance education, no matter the situation. Indeed, for some older American students, it might be difficult for them to attend traditional college classes, signifying that online courses might be the only way that they can finish a higher education degree. Also, without a significant discussion about the consequences of excluding marginalized students from the larger educational scheme of things, segregation will take root again, in a serious way, in all our education systems. And this shouldn't be tolerated. Question: Should a national education plan be put in place to make things equal in all aspects of American education? After all, there are no assurances that traditional or online learning is the solution to our education challenges.
Indeed, even with access to the Internet and mainstream education, we cannot predict if blacks, indigenous and other minority students will graduate or complete their degrees.
Finally, the cynicism in distance education in the U.S. is profound and ingrained, where some students argue that they are not learning much of anything. However, the potential for online education is vast and necessary, even if some find it hard to come to terms with the technology. Therefore, we should ask: Will distance education be the only way that we can teach our students at all levels in the future? More 77 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fet Frontiers in Education Technology Vol. 3, No. 4, 2020 importantly, can virtual education replace the "brick and mortar" schools? Additionally, should we try to motivate all students to persevere, no matter the complications with technology? The best thing that educational institutions can do is to devise educational strategies that will educate all American students based on their academic prowess and abilities. According to Elaine P. Wynn of the Family Foundation, all students absolutely deserve "access to virtual learning" ("Ensuring Distance Learning," 2020, p. 65), and other educational tools for learning. After all, as mentioned: Education provides the skills necessary to expand horizons and allow for economic success.
Education also exposes young men and women to the great ideas of our heritage-liberty and responsibility, participation and patriotism. And in doing so, we secure our democratic way of life. (Wicks, 2019, p. 3) Of course, parents will always be worried about whether their children can get into the best schools, or get the best education; but such efforts must never be at the expense of low-income American families and students. Finally, regardless of the educational consequences, the overall goal should always be to ensure that American colleges and universities, and other educational systems/institutions do the right thing for all students, "in-class" or virtually/online. To be sure, all these education matters must be taken into consideration for the greater good of our democratic society.