The Development of Athletes in Different Sports

This study seeks to identify effective methods for developing outstanding athletes. Through interviews and questionnaire surveys with supervisors, coaches, members of subordinate teams, and university sports clubs, it was found that the characteristics of subordinates of different sports vary. This study conducts interviews with supervisors of subordinate basketball and soccer teams and a university baseball club. Fifty-four samples were obtained from team members of one subordinate basketball team, one subordinate soccer team, and one university baseball club. Using a qualitative and quantitative approach, this study drew conclusions on the methods for the development of athletes in various sports. It also confirms that subordinate teams or university sports clubs have a positive influence on outstanding athlete development. The limitations of the study and topics for future research are also discussed.


Introduction
There are various types of sports activities in Tochigi Prefecture such as basketball, baseball, soccer, and swimming, with athletes achieving high scores in numerous national competitions. Sports events have an important impact on regional promotion. They not only make people's lives more fun, but also stimulate the regional economy by attracting many visitors. The performance of outstanding athletes attracts the attention of children, as well as sports fans. People can lead healthier and more enjoyable lives by playing sports. In fact, elements of sporting spirit like teamwork and perseverance, have an extremely positive impact on people's work, lives, and studies. Sports facilitate friendly exchanges between nations and improve interpersonal communications.
Effective methods of developing outstanding athletes are drawing increasing attention. Prior studies have attempted to compare the flexibility and muscle strength of junior-high and high-school soccer www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/ibes International Business & Economics Studies Vol. 1, No. 2, 2019 162 Published by SCHOLINK INC.
players by age group, identify the impact that the growth period of junior-high and high-school students may have on their Functional Movement Screen (FMS) scores, and identify the period during which injuries may frequently occur among soccer players belonging to subordinate teams of professional clubs (Miyata et al., 2016;Shimada et al., 2016;Shiiki et al., 2016). However, it is still uncertain which methods would be effective in developing outstanding athletes. This is the research question of this study. The purpose of this study is to identify such methods for each sport.
However, it is still uncertain which methods are effective for developing outstanding athletes. Thus, this study will address this question.

Hypothesis
This study, based on the case study method of Yin (1994) and the hypothesis-discovery case-study method ( Figure 1) of Eisenhardt (1989) and Christensen (2009) Members learn cooperativeness and how to always act in a group. They also acquire proper manners.
Therefore, they receive good education and training. 8) Does the system of subordinate teams pose any problem? There may be a slight problem with respect to the team's relationship with schools. 9) What is the percentage of members who quit? I would say 10-20%.
10) What are the differences between male and female subordinate teams?
They are different in terms of their physical strength.
11) What are the differences among countries?
National characters affect what type of sports people love. People from different countries have different views regarding sports and how athletes should be fostered.
12) What are the differences between Japan and the U.S.? The same as above.
13) What are the differences between subordinate teams in your sport and subordinate teams in other sports, such as basketball and soccer?
The ways in which athletes interact with one another is different. In Japan, professionals and amateurs are not allowed to interact with each other.
14) How is your subordinate team different from what it was when it was first established?
The quality of instructions has been improved.
15) What do members do after they retire?
They retire at around the age of 27 or 28. Afterwards, they start businesses, become team managers at high schools or colleges, or work for companies. Some universities allow team members to work part-time, but others do not. Not everyone is from a wealthy family. Some students are from single-parent households. Many students use loan-type scholarships or insurance programs. For some people, it takes 10 years after graduation to pay back their school expenses. Public universities are more affordable because do not charge any school expenses.
Athletes are trained differently depending on whether they play baseball, basketball, or soccer. These sports require different skills, and thus, athletes are trained accordingly. The number of players is also different from sport to sport. Basketball, soccer, and baseball teams have five, 11, and nine players, respectively. This also creates a difference in the provision of instructions. However, these sports have something in common. Members must cooperate with one another. Teamwork is required.

Interview with a Basketball Coach
There are 24 members in this subordinate team. The basketball coach is about 30 years old.
1) How long have you served as a manager, coach or supervisor? A total of four years.

2) How much progress have team members made in their skill development?
It depends on the individual; however, overall, their skills are improving.
3) Are the skills they have acquired useful in becoming outstanding athletes? I think these skills are useful. They are also growing as human beings.
4) How is leadership training being offered? Each member goes through leadership training.

5)
Until when do they engage in sports? Members are usually between 12 and 15 years old. However, we will have an 18-year old member next year.
6) How much do you expect the training to help their career (whether they can become pros)? I think they can become pros. There is a career path, and there is also a semi-career path. They will be useful. are given a discount for dormitories.

17) Do you have any trainer?
YES. We have a "judo therapy" bonesetter from Teikyo University. We also have a trader who also handles work related to youth teams.
18) Do the sponsors of the top teams provide any support to subordinate teams?
Youth teams have sponsors. These sponsors include, for example, JA and Global Kids. All Tochigi JA groups support the teams. They provide rice, strawberries, and take care of their expenses. They also provide wagyu beef at debriefing sessions.

Interview with a Soccer Supervisor
He has been a supervisor for three years. He has a total of six years of experience as a coach and a manager. He is about 30 years sold. This particular subordinate team has been in existence for 10 years.
Although the team's history is relatively short, it has about 150 members who are in elementary, junior high, and high school. Three of its members joined the top soccer team.
How quickly the team members improve their skills depends on the individual. Elementary-school students and those who are in their first year of junior high school seem to develop rapidly.
I believe that the skills they acquire will help them become outstanding athletes.
In Braziland Spain, where people are very passionate about soccer, excellent leadership training is provided.
Regarding membership, most of the members are junior-high students. They join the team from the age of nine until they turn18. After they reach the age of 18, they get a job, become pros, or join a university.

7)
How does the existence of subordinate teams benefit the development of athletes?
Students start as members of a team while they are still young. Therefore, they quickly learn and experience teamwork and hierarchical human relations. The three years of high school are useful for students as they grow as human beings.
8) Does the system of subordinate teams pose any problem?
Their physical environment may impose challenges. For example, there are not enough places to practice and host tournaments. There are also problems related to dormitories for members. We need assistance from companies and from the government.

9) What is the percentage of members who quit?
Some members quit in order to join a university. Others quit when they begin junior high school(after leaving elementary school) or when they begin high school. There are also students who quit when their families move to a different location because of work, and they have to attend a different school as a result.
10) What are the differences between male and female subordinate teams?
There are female teams for junior-high students. However, female and male students are basically the same, other than in their physique and physical strength.

11) What are the differences among countries?
Countries with a soccer culture (such as Germany, Brazil, and Turkey) have many subordinate teams.
They are widespread. In China, there has been an increase in the number of subordinate teams. In Germany, as many as 70,000 people are involved in soccer.
12) What are the differences between Japan and the U.S.?
Soccer and baseball are popular in the U. S.; subordinate baseball teams are widespread. There are university players who are almost pros. However, subordinate teams for female soccer clubs in the U.S.
are not as developed as those in Japan.
13) What are the differences between subordinate teams in your sport and subordinate teams in other sports, such as basketball and soccer?
In Japan, there are established subordinate teams for soccer clubs, allowing for the developing of human resources in a consistent manner. A well-developed training is also provided to the instructors.
Therefore, many athletes become managers after they retire. There is a five-level qualification system referred to as D, C, B, A, and S. Those who hold the "S" rank can become J-League instructors. The J-League, established in 1989, has 30 years of history. For this reason, it has a well-established system of developing human resources. Subordinate teams in the West monitor members' heartbeat and other health data during exercise. This allows them to determine athletes' potential abilities and maximum skill levels. This is how they find people who have outstanding capabilities.
In Japan, there are no subordinate teams for baseball clubs. There are some subordinate teams in the B-League.

14) How is your subordinate team different from what it was when it was first established?
Last year, three people joined the top soccer team. This happened for the first time in our 10-year history.

15) What do members do after they retire?
Other than becoming pros, they could join a university or get a job.

Research Method
In this study, a questionnaire survey was conducted from July to September of 2019 to validate the above two hypotheses. Questionnaires were administered to, and collected from, 19 members of a subordinate basketball team, 25 members of a subordinate soccer team, and 10 members of a baseball club; these teams and club are all based in Utsunomiya City, Tochigi Prefecture. The results are as follows.

Research Results
The results (Table 1) show that the average age and height of the members of the subordinate basketball team are the lowest among all the surveyed groups. Children from Tochigi Prefecture make up the largest number in this group, and the average number of years that they have been members of a subordinate team is also the lowest. In contrast, members of the baseball club are all university students, and their average age and height are the highest among the three groups. This group also has the fewest number of students who come from Tochigi Prefecture, with the percentage of those from other areas reaching as high as 30%. They have been members of this baseball club for a relatively long time. A total of 80% of these students have been with the club for seven years or longer.
At least 90% of the respondents said that they believed that their teams had helped them improve their skills. This applies to all the teams. All the respondents (100%) in the three teams said that they believed that the skills that they had acquired through their respective subordinate teams or the university baseball club would help them become outstanding athletes. At least 80% of the respondents in the three teams said that they believed that they were also growing as human beings. As for leadership training, the results tend to differ from individual to individual. This is in line with the answers provided by the coaches in interviews. Regarding whether the training they were going through at their subordinate teams or the university baseball club would help their future career, 84% of the basketball-team members provided positive answers, the highest among the three teams. This is followed by the baseball club members at 80%. Those belonging to the subordinate soccer team provided the fewest positive answers at 48%. These results may have been affected by the age and number of members in each team. Many members of the subordinate basketball team are junior-high students or younger. Therefore, it takes a relatively long time for them to reach the retirement age of 27 or 28. For this reason, many students tend to have high expectations for their own future. Meanwhile, members of the baseball team are all university students. Even so, the percentage Of members in this team who believe that they could become pros is not the lowest among the three teams. Thus, it is possible that there are factors other than age that may influence members' expectations for their own future. They include, for example, the number of team members. The number of soccer-team members is 25, while that of baseball-team members is only 10. Members of a team that has many players may expect intense competition, meaning that the percentage of those who believe that they could become pros may relatively reduce.
Considering the above, the two hypotheses in this study may have been validated. However, leadership training is believed to be influenced by members' individual characteristics and various cultural factors.
With respect to other questions, particularly questions regarding trainers, the answers vary. The subordinate soccer and basketball teams have trainers. However, some respondents in the baseball team said that the team did not have any trainer. Thus, it is possible that the baseball team currently suffers from a shortage of trainers. However, an overwhelming number of people in the other two teams responded that they had trainers. Regarding the use of leisure time, members of the three teams provided more or less the same answers. They study on their own, train on their own, play, rest, or engage in muscle training. Their answers to other questions are also similar. The common complaints include lack of sufficient training facilities or gymnasiums.

Conclusion
This study has validated that subordinate sports teams and university sports clubs contribute to the development of athletes by helping them improve their skills and grow as human beings. For example, members learn teamwork, hierarchical human relations, and cooperativeness. They also immerse themselves in a group setting and acquire proper manners. Many members also expect to become pros.
In fact, at least 70% of the respondents in the three groups said that they expected to become pros.
Further, this study clarified the differences among the subordinate teams/university clubs for the three types of sports: basketball, soccer, and baseball. The subordinate soccer team has the longest history, followed by the subordinate basketball team. Meanwhile, baseball does not have subordinate teams.
Thus, university clubs function as subordinate teams. The three types of sports also differ with respect to the members' average age and height, the number of years that the members have been with their team, members' skill development, members' level of maturity as human beings, leadership training, members' expectations of becoming pros, the number of team members, and how members are trained.
There are also many common features. It has been found that the three sports' subordinate teams (school clubs in the case of baseball) have grown tremendously since their inception. It has also been found that the sports culture environment of individual countries, such as Japan and the U.S., influence the characteristics and leadership development of subordinate teams.

Discussion
The three types of sports have different methods of training as their characteristics, the number of members, and the features of subordinate teams and school clubs are all different. Specifically, baseball is popular and widespread in Japan. Therefore, university sports club activities are expected to become more invigorated if teams can obtain more assistance from sponsoring companies and the government.

Topics for Future Research
In this study, case and quantitative analyses were used to validate the fact that subordinate teams and school sports clubs contribute to the developing of outstanding athletes, and the characteristics of subordinate teams and school clubs for the three types of sports were clarified. While the study has contributed to an increase in knowledge in this field, it also has several limitations. First, how subordinate teams or school sports clubs should provide training in order to produce outstanding athletes remains uncertain. In the future, case studies and questionnaire surveys will be conducted targeting those who have become members of top teams to trace their experience and determine more specific methods of teaching and training for subordinate teams and school sports clubs.Second, it will also be necessary to create a more precise definition of an "outstanding professional athlete" in future research.Third, soccer and basketball subordinate teams have a long history and receive support from many companies. In contrast, baseball teams currently do not receive much support from companies, even though it is a popular and widespread sport in Japan. Therefore, university sports club activities are expected to become more invigorated if teams can obtain more assistance from sponsoring companies and the government. Future research could explore more effective proposals and solutions to address this issue. Fourth, results show that there is a lack of previous literature on this topic; it can be regarded as a new direction for future research to contribute more to this field in an academic way.