“Holding up Half the Sky”—Women and the Glass Ceiling at a University in China

The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study is to describe the glass ceiling is perceived by women in the role of mid-to-senior level academics and administrators in higher education in a Chinese university. This study also sought to understand the characteristics of women in mid-to-senior level positions, as well as the tools and resources necessary for women to obtain such a position in higher education. Drawing on in-depth interviews with eight women in mid-to-senior level academic and administrative positions in one university and informed by constructivist views, the essence of their lived experience helped to inform a broader discourse of women and the glass ceiling. The findings highlight how women’s career progression is shaped by cultural norms and conventions.

positions and serve as Communist Party leaders, rather than university leaders . This mirrored the case in the university in this study.

The Role of Cultural and Social Factors
The higher up the hierarchy one goes, the more social capital appears to matter (O'Connor, 2014).
Precisely because Chinese society operates on a system of relationships (known as guanxi), men benefit greatly from the social capital and opportunities that social networks provide. Women, on the other hand, are constrained in taking part in important social networks by powerful socio-cultural barriers (Zhang, 2005;Huang & Aaltio, 2014;Zhang, 2010). Female academics in Chinese universities are affected in many other -often indirect -ways. For instance, research suggests women as managers are not viewed positively (Javalgi et al., 2011) and that the opportunities for males and females in Chinese universities are different, due to a situation existing where "social prejudice against women is very strong" (Zhang, 2005, p. 105). This suggests that where traditionalist values dominate, there is a less positive perception of women as managers. Cho and Ryu (2016) examined career success through surveying the faculties of two major universities in Shandong Province, China, finding that the perceptions of career expectations of Chinese female faculty were impacted by social comparison standards.
In China, the conflict between work and family is the most significant obstacle faced by women in their career development (Yang, 2011). In traditional Chinese family culture, women are expected to assume the greater share of the family and homelife responsibilities, so it is more likely to be very difficult for them to invest the time and dedication required to meet the demands of a career without family support (Ip, 2011). In this, they have much in common with other studies reported in the literature from around the world.
Traditional values in China also emphasize that married women's primary duty is to support their husbands' careers fully (Cooke, 2005). Additionally, Chinese women show less self-efficacy in their career development compared to men (Firoz, 2015). Since self-efficacy is central to career development intent, discovering why women have generally accepted this condition and have not made some changes becomes essential. For instance, by investigating the relationship among work and family conflict, career expectations, and career development for Chinese women, Wang and Cho (2013, p. 49) argued that "women face high work-family conflict, influencing their career expectation and hindering career development". Cultural environment plays an important role in the process of leadership and management (Kong & Zhang, 2011;Zhang & Foo, 2012). Although being wary of generalizing, consistent with research by Hofstede (1980Hofstede ( , 1991 and Shi and Wang (2011), Chinese culture places greater emphasis on collectivism whereas some cultures, such as that of the US, tend to emphasize individualism. Additionally, in a predominantly collectivist culture, there is a tendency to support collective values and standards, which are in accordance with behaviours of transformational leaders who associate the personal values of subordinates with group goals and visions (Avolio & Bass, 1988 the competition, autonomy and achievement of individuals (Avolio et al., 1995), which ties in with the culture of individualism, but is somewhat inconsistent with the value of collectivism (Walumbwa et al., 2007). Transformational leadership has generally been believed to be an effective leadership style (Bass & Avolio, 1993), and female leaders are often better at adopting this kind of leadership style than male leaders (Eagly & Carli, 2003a, 2003b. Therefore, it is more beneficial for female leaders to take on an effective transformational leadership style in Chinese academic culture. In a 2015 study, Peusa et al. claimed that paternalistic leadership is very prevalent in corporate contexts in the Chinese society (see also Chen et al., 2014). To what extent this paternalistic leadership characterizes female leaders in China is not known.
It is indisputable that China has been heavily influenced by Confucian culture (Wah, 2010), where women often play a dependent role. As the ancient Chinese proverb goes: "Only women and villains are difficult to support. One cannot approach them too closely, nor drift apart too far" (Confucius). In fact, it is deeply rooted in Chinese culture to maintain gender role traditions as well as the concept that men are somehow superior to women (Gu, 2003;Zhang, 2015).
Therefore, traditional Confucian culture in China may heighten the glass ceiling effect, which lowers the possibility for women to be promoted to senior positions. Conversely, this could also mean that women promoted to more senior positions are perhaps more capable than their male counterparts (Foschi, 1996;Biernat & Kobrynowicz, 1997).

Glass Ceiling
The term glass ceiling has been reimagined in a myriad of ways over the years (Mulcahy & Linehan, 2014;Smith et al., 2012) and remains a powerful image of organisational culture. Being excluded from men-only events is described in New York (Fiorina, 2006) and London contexts (The Economist, 2011).
Of course, women also tend to exclude themselves, such as when they are less likely to apply for promotion (Litzky & Greenhaus, 2007;Sandberg & Scovell, 2013). This was identified by Austin (2009, p. ix) as a "psychological glass ceiling", where women who are capable often lack self-confidence and belief in themselves. Snyder's (2014aSnyder's ( , 2014b gender comparison of 248performance assessments in the US showed that more critical language was used about women compared to their male colleagues, especially when it came to promotion and performance review.

Queen Bee Syndrome
Another barrier, known as the "queen bee syndrome", describes a woman in a position of authority who views or treats subordinates more critically if they are female. This term was coined in the 1970s following a study led by researchers at the University of Michigan (Staines, Tavris, & Jayaratne, 1973), which examined promotion rates and the impact of the women's movement on the workplace. They found that women who achieved success in male-dominated environments were at times likely to oppose the rise of other women, essentially because the patriarchal culture of work encouraged the few women who successfully rose to the top to become fixated on maintaining their power (Blau & DeVaro, www 2007).

Research Performance
Morley (2014) found the existence of a gendered research economy in academia. Women are less likely to be journal editors or cited in top-rated academic journals (Wilson, 2012), are less likely to be principal investigators (European Commission, 2011), are also awarded fewer research prizes and tend to receive fewer invitations to be keynote conference speakers (Schroeder et al., 2013). In fact, many female academics have contracts that are temporary or heavily weighted towards teaching rather than research. Universities in East Asia are rapidly ascending the global league tables, yet quality does not yet seem to be linked to gender equality (Grove, 2013).

Mentors
Support or mentoring from others makes a discernible difference to those who aspire to climb the career ladder (Holton & Dent, 2016). Much of this support occurs on an informal basis, with establishing a good working relationship with the boss being viewed as a vital source of career development. Some organisations do formalise support with mentoring or executive education programmes. This type of support is particularly significant when women are in the minority in their workplace, especially early in their career (Sanders, 2012). However, mentors are useful at every level in the organisation.

Recent Advancements
The former Chinese leader Chairman Mao's slogan on the role of women in the new socialist society, that women were "holding up half the sky" (Li, 2000), may still remain as an unattainable dream, but there has been some encouraging news in recent years. Xie and Zhu (2016), in a study involving 296 women managers who were taking MBA and EMBA programmes in China, found that there has been positive improvement, with the majority of women managers being satisfied with the proportion of women as managers, and with their own promotion situations, in their current organizations.

Research Context
According to a relatively recent survey among Chinese colleges and universities (Jiang, 2017), males in senior-level positions account for more than 90% of higher education leaders, while there is a distinct lack of females in such positions (25%). In academia, few females are in charge of important research projects. This is brought into sharp focus when one considers the chief scientists in the "973 Plan", where women account for 4.6% of those selected; when one considers the chief scientists in "the Yangtze River scholars" scheme, where women account for 3.9% of those selected; and when one considers the chief scientists in the research group of "863 Plan", where there was not a single female representative in 2017 (Jiang, 2017).
Correspondingly, at the university in this study, among the senior leadership ranks, women occupy more deputy and associate-level positions than principal ones. Established in 2012, the university in this study is a public institution with a student cohort of almost 4,000 students. The university is expanding quickly, thanks in no small part to generous government funding. A university with research, innovation and entrepreneurship as its mission, there is a male-female student ratio of 3:1.

Research Question
As women continue to break through the glass ceiling, the proportion of senior female leaders in Chinese higher education remains low, compared to other fields and to higher education in other countries.
The following questions were used to guide the study: 1.
How do mid-to-senior level females in higher education perceive their experience with the glass ceiling? 2.
What are the characteristics of females in senior positions which allowed them to break through the glass ceiling to their current position?

3.
What are the barriers that prevent females from being promoted to higher positions?

4.
What are the tools and resources needed in higher education for females to advance in their careers?

Method
In previous research on the glass ceiling, a quantitative approach has been more popular than a qualitative one. However, the focus in this study was on interpreting reasons and motivations for perceptions, beliefs and behaviours of people (Donley, 2012). Bryman (2012) noted three particular features of a qualitative research: an inductive view of the relationship between theory and research, a stress of the qualitative method on understanding the social world through an examination of the interpretation of that world by its participants, and lastly, the implication that the social properties are outcomes of the interactions between individuals.
Using a qualitative methodology, however, may be seen as "too impressionistic and subjective" (Bryman, 2012, p. 405). It may also be perceived as being dependent on the researcher viewpoints about what is considered to be important, and the relationship between the researcher and the people studied (Bryman, 2012). However, as this study sought explicitly to understand the participants' viewpoint and experience, it was deemed to be the most appropriate method.
To this end, in-depth, semi-structured interviews were conducted with eight women in mid-to-senior-level positions. Six of the women interviewed were in mid-level positions, and two in senior-level positions. All personal details pertaining to the participants' work was anonymized. All the women began their careers as teachers.
Interview questions were open-ended questions, to capture participants' views about their work and life, career development path and obstacles they have faced and/or overcome. The data were collected through semi-structured interviews because these are a form of interaction as natural as any other (Atkinson & Silverman, 1997). Interview data were analysed by coding words and phrases from the interview transcripts and then incorporating these into general thematic categories (Mayan, 2001).

Results and Discussion
The findings of the study are presented in four themes: perception of the glass ceiling, challenges, breaking through barriers, and advice. Each of the themes shall be discussed in turn.

Perception of the Glass Ceiling
Amy, an associate director of a department, shared the following description that illustrates how the glass ceiling phenomena is dependent on who's in charge at the institution: "If you look at who's running the universities, who's running this university, they're all older -probably 50s, 60s, even maybe 70s, that that was the world they grew up in and they don't want things to change, even if they say they Four of the participants believe that a possible reason why the glass ceiling exists in higher education is because some men feel threatened by capable women: "So, I think, there are still some, some men in administration and they don't know how to deal with women in positions that are higher than theirs.

And it may be because they're jealous women got the positions and not them. A man's worth is in his career here, so to have a woman as a line manager can be a problem". (Amy)
Although all participants acknowledge that the glass ceiling exists in higher education, four of them did not believe the institution was intentionally creating an environment that held women back. They stated that, although it happened, it was not intentional: "I don't think that there's anything about our structure or our policies or anything that makes it any more difficult". (Jackie) Jackie recalled that as the mother of a young child and the only mid-level administrator at the time, the challenge of being a working mother with mainly male colleagues: "I sat around these conference room tables, I was the only one who was a mother, Janice, a mid-level academic, stated "I don't think men are sitting in the conference room saying we want to create a barrier for women". Jackie commented that although there is a glass ceiling in higher education that she believes it is not intentional but, rather, a historically cultural way of thinking: "Women have many parts to play. I'm lucky because I have an understanding husband, but I still have the majority of home responsibilities because I'm a mother. This is how it is for every woman I know.
It's the culture here. I don't think universities are deliberately putting obstacles in our way. This is just how things are".

Challenges
Six participants acknowledged that the responsibilities for women outside of the office are often more demanding for women, despite the fact that they hold management positions, as they remain responsible for most household tasks and childcare. Jackie shared the following: "It's hard. You have to be able to give 100% at work and then do the same thing at home-and sometimes you also have to solve home problems during the work day, such as when your child is sick, or the babysitter can't come.

Is that the same for a man? I'm not saying men don't care or don't do anything at home, but they do not have to worry about it in the same way we do, and they don't have to drop everything in the same way, to deal with problems at home. So, it's a big challenge for women, to combine duties at work with duties at home, and I don't think men understand that".
Seven of the participants commented on the different communication styles of men and women, which they feel presents a challenge that women have to face on a daily basis. They shared examples of when their ideas were either not listened to or completely ignored by the men in the group and, therefore, they felt belittled. Jackie recalled that many times she would contribute in a meeting and her contribution would not be acknowledged, only to find that a few minutes later a man would provide the same idea -and suddenly it was seen by the president as a great idea: "I've been in so many meetings The study determined that while there was a noticeable increase in the number of women holding mid-level academic and administrative positions, the vast majority of senior-level positions continued to be held by men. The management landscape is changing in higher education in China, albeit at a snail's pace.

Breaking through Barriers
All of the participants were of the opinion that one had to first excel in either teaching or research in order to be taken seriously by their male colleagues in a managerial role, even if that role was wholly administrative, as Angela shows: "Though there is a separate administration system and teaching

Sometimes people don't want to do things differently because there's a certain way it's always been
done, but if that isn't efficient, it's up to us to look for ways to make things better. It's about attitude".
Janice believes always being professional is the most important factor for women who want to progress in their careers. She stressed this is perhaps more the case in higher education than in other fields, where enquiring amongst one's peers as to one's suitability is commonplace: "People always say the However, it is not only about being professional, but about having to prove that more than men do: "A man here is automatically assumed to be a good manager, a good leader. Not so for a woman, as she has to prove it in many different ways, with many different people". (Angela) This was also mentioned by other participants, suggesting that there is an increased level of scrutiny for women who aspire to managerial or leadership roles.
Lack of self-awareness was generally felt to be a barrier that many women need to overcome over the course of their careers, as a knowledge of one's own strengths and weaknesses can only help when moving up in one's career. As Angela said, it is all about "be honest about what you want, know what you are good at and plan to become the best". Having a critical friend, or receiving honest feedback from one's line manager was viewed as something positive. It was felt that self-awareness helped women be and feel more confident at work and would help them be more likely to apply for promotion.
All participants expressed the view that pregnancy is a disadvantage when considering whether to apply for promotion, with three participants also mentioning that they were part of interview panels where male managers asked women about whether they were married, how many children they had etc.
as a means of deciding if they should not be hired for a higher level position. This is seen to dissuade many women from pursuing career opportunities, as there are no policies specifically in place to address this.

Advice
All of the participants were eager to offer advice to others, in order to assist other women in navigating their career paths. When a new director restructured the administrative department she worked in and decided to hire an associate director Jenny shared the following: "I had not ever given much thought The study highlights a number of areas that make it harder for women to achieve their career potential.
There are the difficulties experienced by working mothers, ideas that a person is somehow less capable, less committed or less intelligent simply because they are women and many other factors making it difficult for women in China to scale the heights of career success.
However, the findings from the research also identify key factors that are likely to create career success for women.

Limitations
While this article contributes to understanding key issues surrounding women and the glass ceiling in China's universities, which may be relevant in other cultural contexts, there are also limitations to this study. For example, a larger sample from a broader range of colleges nad universities could reveal a diversity of views. Second, the interviews were conducted at a single point in time, perhaps leading to similar views being expressed.
This study was concerned with higher education, as the focus was on the experiences of the glass ceiling of individual women managers in the university milieu. Wider issues weren't examined in-depth, therefore, future research could combine macro-and micro-level issues with a wider number of participants, which would enable us to gain a better understanding of the influence of social norms on women, career and the glass ceiling in the wider society, as well as in other workplaces.

Recommendations
Future research could involve longitudinal research, possibly following newly appointed female academic and administrative leaders. Comparative studies with other national contexts could also prove productive in furthering our understanding of the glass ceiling as it is experienced by females in Chinese universities.
Although promotion occurred internally for most of the participants in this study, with an international outlook forming part of the rankings criteria for universities, more attention will most likely be paid in the future to diverse working experience in a globalised context. Women need to be cognizant of this and plan their careers carefully.
One thing the study highlights is the need for more research on the significance of mentors for women in higher education in China. Young women in today's China are more likely to have a mother who works outside the home. While they can be mentors or role models, women should also find a mentor in their chosen career, as this would appear to be an untapped resource of enormous potential.

Conclusion
The glass ceiling can partly be shattered by women taking more responsibility for their own career path development. However, alone, that is unlikely to be enough. What is really needed is for higher education institutions to acknowledge they need to be proactive in creating policies and an environment where organisational culture is more favourable towards women, where women are better able to contribute to institutional success.
The participants in this study could be said to have learnt how to position themselves within social and cultural norms, even if they sometimes find it difficult to manage expectations. In essence, they are navigating their own career paths, and are forging new ways of dealing with the glass ceiling. They have taken some of the first steps on the longer journey those who follow in their footsteps will need to continue.
Compared to foreign countries, the proportion of female leaders in China's higher education field is still low, and this state of affairs has not been given nearly enough attention in the literature. If more higher education institutions improve career development support and mentoring and, perhaps critically, if more women also understand the importance of taking full responsibility for their own careers, then the situation for women will inevitable improve over time. Career aspirations will no longer be as limited as perhaps they have been heretofore.
In summary, the research findings indicate the need for better career development guidance and support.
While some barriers to women's career advancement in higher education have been identified, and some strategies to overcome these barriers have been suggested, this small-scale research study will attempt to give voice to women in mid-to senior-level academic and administrative positions in higher education, allowing them to share how they were successful at breaking through the glass ceiling in higher education.