Airborne Particulate Matter Pollution—Knowledge, Perception and Breathing Experiences of Port Harcourt Residents During COVID-19 Pandemic Shutdown

While millions of deaths are recorded from COVID-19 pandemic infection, the environment continues to benefits from the lockdown of cities. A descriptive cross-sectional survey aimed at assessing residents’ knowledge and perception concerning air pollution and breathing experience in Port Harcourt was carried out within 20-28 of May, 2020. Convenience and purposive non-randomized sampling methods were used to recruit 358 participants. Using descriptive and chi square test analysis, majority (74% and 24%) of the respondents were very aware or aware of air pollution and its health consequences. This varied significantly with sex, age, marital status, occupation and location (p < 0.05). Before the city’s lockdown, 90.1% of respondents experienced particulate matter deposits on surfaces and during the lockdown; it reduces to 54.1% with significant difference (p < 0.05) across residential areas. Hence, age, sex, marital status, occupation and residential area likely to influence higher awareness of air pollution and not duration of stay. Additionally, significant difference in breathing experiences (p < 0.05) was noted, with majority reporting poor breathing experience before http://www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/se Sustainability in Environment Vol. 5, No. 3, 2020 29 Published by SCHOLINK INC. lockdown and good during the lockdown. Joint action of governments’ policies on air pollution and high awareness among residents could be explored effectively to mitigate air pollution hazards.


Introduction
Clean and healthy ambient air remains an essential physiological need for an effective and efficient human function and well-being . Globally, ambient air pollution remains a top risk of public health concern, as many people continue to breathe unsafe polluted air. It is ranked the 4 th health threat and topmost environmental risk (WHO, 2016), leading to over 7 million annual death attributed to air pollution (WHO, 2016;WHO, 2018), with particulate matter having the topmost health risk contribution among the pollutants (WHO, 2020). Nigeria like most developing countries where air quality continues to decline (WHO, 2016b) is stated to be the 4 th worldwide and the 1 st in Africa with poor air quality associated with mortality and morbidity burdens (Health Effects Institute, 2018).
In Port Harcourt, petroleum and hydrocarbon exploration and refining remain the foremost source of air pollution, including particulate matter of sizes (PM 10 and PM 2.5 ) and other toxic compounds (Gobo, 2013;Yakubu, 2017;RSMENV, 2019;Edokpa & Ede, 2019). Studies have also estimated quantitatively, high of risk cancers, increase treads of morbidity, mortality and reduction in life expectancies associated with particulate matter pollution on residents (US EPA, 2008;UNEP, 2011;Ebenstein et al., 2017;Fienemika, In, & Best, 2018;RSMENV, 2019;Lelieveld et al., 2020, WHO, 2020a on residents. The studies were found to be weak for not comprehensively and qualitatively assessing health risks and effects that integrates the perspective of the affected inhabitants (Mudi, Terracini, & Martuzzi, 2014;Maduka & Tobin-West, 2017). An awareness survey is an integrative and representative investigation that collects data from a particular population on what is known, believed, perceived risks, experiences, actions taken and attitudes towards a specific phenomenon that affects the group at or over a time (Zahedi et al., 2014;. The influence of geography and other socio-demographic factors on a peoples' perception, awareness, and behaviors and consequently the group's participatory decisions have been explained by theory of planned behaviour (Arcury & Christianson, 1993;Raudsepp, 2001). Environmental attitude has been stated to allow for exploration into the set of beliefs, http://www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/se Sustainability in Environment Vol. 5, No. 3, 2020 30 Published by SCHOLINK INC.
During the Corona virus pandemic shutdown, millions of deaths resulting from COVID-19 pandemic have been reported (WHO, 2020b) and anthropogenic, economic, industrial activities and sources responsible for particulate matter pollution were found to be on hold and global air quality observed to improve significantly (Shrestha et al., 2020). And as such, exposed inhabitants such as Port Harcourt residents were likely to have observed different air quality experiences, as against the boom days of industrial and commercial activities. Estimates of about 25 to 40 million Nigerian are said to use digital devices especially smart phones. With internet penetration of 47.1% of the population, it is also stated that Nigerians are among the top users of internet, as over 92.3 million people access the internet, which is also projected to reach 84.4% population penetration by 2023 (Statista.com, 2020). With the lockdown, more people were to have used the internet and digital devices for work, study, transaction, conferences, amongst others, hence collecting data digitally during a pandemic lockdown best suit the study design (De, Pandey, & Pal, 2020

Study Design
The team carried out a descriptive cross-sectional survey aimed at assessing residents' awareness, attitude and perception concerning air pollution and respiratory health risks in Port Harcourt metropolis Nigeria.

Study Population
The study targeted adult residents of Port Harcourt, 20 years and above, who can use and had access to internet incorporated electronic gadgets (Phones, PCs, and Laptops, etc.)

Sampling Method
Convenience and purposive non-randomized sampling methods were used to recruit study participants.
Convenience; because, the participants were at home during the pandemic lockdown and use of internet-based survey medium was best suited, rather than direct interface. Purposive; because there are empirical evidences of long time airborne particulate matter pollution history and exposure of Port Harcourt residents before the pandemic shutdown.

Sample Size
Study sample size was estimated using one-sample formula size protocol stated as follows: n = [Zα 2 (p

Data Collection
The study took place between 20 th and 28 th of May, 2020. To achieve the study objectives, a modified 20-item thematic structured questionnaires (Qian et al., 2016;Zhao et al., 2019)  upon by the research team was used to collect responses from participants. The response from the participants are achievable within 3-5 minutes. The data collection was done digitally (through Google form link distributed to social media groups' platforms; Whats Apps).

Data Analysis
Completed responses were downloaded from the Google excel data bases into the Microsoft Excel Spread Sheet (2016), and later exported to Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software, version 26.0, for data analysis. Descriptive analysis (of frequency, mean and standard deviation) was used to describe study participants and their responses. Bivariate analysis was used to show relationships between the outcome variable of air pollution awareness and the independent variables.
Chi-squared test was used to assess the bivariate. All statistical tests were done at 95% confidence level, marginal error of 5%, two-tailed and alpha level set at 0.05 to determine statistical significance.

Quality Control and Assurance
Review from literature reports shows that only handful of studies integrated residents' awareness, attitude and perception towards air pollution and health risks in Nigeria. Thus, the questionnaire was structured and modified to capture the specific needs of the study area. The survey was rigorously pre-tested prior to study implementation to ensure that prospective participants understood the questionnaires well enough. IT and social media experts were consulted to pre-distribute draft questionnaires and their feedback led to modifications in language context, removal and addition of some themes, numbers of themes and items, order of the themes and response time considerations.
Before the commencement of data analysis, normality check was done to ensure the research data were normally distributed. Also, the Google form data base was locked to prevent access and modification to the survey form.

Ethical Consideration
The ethical clearance was obtained from the Policy, Research & Statistics' (PRS) ethics review unit of the Rivers State Ministry of Health (MH/PRS/391/VOL.2/632. 13 th Feb., 2020). The purpose of the study and voluntary participation were written for the understanding of prospective respondents in the language (English) understood by the populace. Also, prior to data collection, respondents' consents were sought and obtained through a click option button titled "Do you consent to participate?"

Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Respondents
Three hundred and sixty-two (362) respondents completed the questionnaire online. The age of the respondents ranged between 20 and 80 years. More than half (58.0%) of the respondents were between 30 and 39 years, the average age of respondents was 38.9 years and the standard deviation was 7.9 years. Majority of the respondents were male (65.7%) and married (55.8%). The respondents were of varying occupations, but the three most common groups were public servants (20.2%), academics (16.9%) and health workers (14.6%). The Table 1 also showed that the respondents resided in areas that It was shown in Figure 2 that 89 (24.6%) of the respondents reported to be aware of air pollution and its health consequences, 269 (74.3%) claim to be very aware, and 4 (1.1%) reported to be poorly aware.
In Figure 3 it was shown that 344 (95.0%) had heard about or experienced particulate matter (black carbon) deposits in their areas of residents, 6 (1.7%) had not, and 12 (3.3%) were not sure whether they had heard about or experienced particulate matter (black carbon) deposits in their areas of residents or not ( Figure 2 and Figure 3).     Figure 5.  The level of anxiety about health and air quality self-rated revealed that anxiety level was very high in Twenty (5.5%) of respondents reported not having any form of anxiety, while 12 (3.3%) had no idea of their anxiety level about health and air quality (Figure 3.5). It was also noted that only 216 (59.7%) of the respondents desired to have good air quality even after the COVID-19 lockdown (Figure 7).  shown that black soot experience was highest among respondents between 30-39 years of age (57.3%, n=197), then 21.8% (n=75) among those between 40-49 years, 9.9% (n=34) among those between 20-29 years, 9.0% (n=31) among those between 50-59 years, and least among those who were 60 years and above (2.0%, n=7), but there was no statistical significance (p=4.337, X 2 =0.362) was noted.
Marital status also did not show statistical significance even when over half of the respondents who were aware were married (p=2.259; X 2 =0.520). However, there was a statistically significant difference in black carbon experience across respondent's who lived in Port Harcourt. Awareness about black carbon was highest (71.8%, n=247) significantly among respondents who had lived in Port Harcourt for 20 years and over (p=19.134; X 2 =0.001). Respondent's cluster settlement (p=13.307; X 2 =0.149) and occupational status (p=15.843; X 2 =0.104) did not show any statistically significant difference. See Table 3.

Discussion
Airborne particulate matter (black carbon) pollution remains a major threat to human health and environmental challenge across most cities of the world. Children, infants, pregnant women, the elderly and outdoor workers are found to be most vulnerable to poor air quality, especially from criteria air pollutant such as particulate matter (Perera et al., 2002;WHO, 2006).

Economic development in Port
Harcourt brought about largely by oil exploration, crude oil refining, petroleum and hydrocarbon driven industrial ecology has also conveyed along with it a sequence of complex social and environmental issues. This study attempts to assess Port Harcourt inhabitants' KAP of air borne particulate matter pollution as it relates to health before and during COVID-19 pandemic lockdown of the city, as well Government policies on air quality. The study aims to utilize the findings to impact on Port Harcourt environmental and health policies and improve the situation of soot haze plaguing it over the years.
Evidence-based and data driven decisions are important factors in successful implementation of environmental policies.
Contrary to the study by Cheng (2017), the study findings showed that majority ( This could result from respondents' long term stay in the city, as majority of the respondents (70.7%) had lived in the city for over 20 years, This long term stay was found statistically significant in influencing individual's experience of black soot in the city and this Suggest that they have knowledge of the ambient air quality condition before the soot haze and during the lockdown. Awareness creation is a critical factor in air pollution mitigation (Lizuka, 2004;Stephen & Tahiru, 2020). More than half (68.2%) of the respondents were young (20-39 years) and being young was significant in influencing high awareness of air pollution among the age group compared to older age groups. This finding agrees with report by Minghui et al. (2019) and Stephen and Tahiru (2020) as against studies by Jia and Cai (2014) and Kim, Yi and Kim (2012) which recorded low awareness among young people. Increase awareness among younger people could result from young people being more used to social and electronic media that rapidly circulate information, as against older generations that are obsessed to conventional media for information (Qian et al., 2016;Stephen & Tahiru, 2020). Being aware of air pollution and its health consequences at young age is likely to enhance mitigation measures, as young people possess the exuberance and energy necessary for environmental and air pollution activism (Morar & Peterlicean, 2012;Stephen & Tahiru, 2020). The finding also noted a wide gender disparity between male (65.7%) and female (34.3%) participation in the study, with males being more aware of air pollution and its health consequences (see Table 1). The statistical difference suggests that males are likely to take action on environmental issues than females. On the contrary, studies have shown that women are more at risk of air pollution and other environmental hazards and toxicity than males (Maureen, 2006;Hyunok et al., 2010).
Across occupation, we found that, awareness of air pollution and its implication on health was significantly high among public servants, the academic and health workers and low among the clergy, entertainers and security personnel. The former high awareness could be due to routine work on policy documents, research and refresher trainings related to environmental issues. Poor awareness among the latter group reveals the need for consistent engagement with the religious leaders, entertainers and artists as well as security personnel as these groups have influence on the people and environmental issues in this part of the world. The study finding showed that there was statistical difference on awareness and residential area, with residents in Trans-Amadi/Odili Road/Woji Axis of Port Harcourt having more awareness compared to residents in other residential clusters. This could explain high reports of activities of illegal crude oil business, security personnel setting ablaze into the atmosphere seized petroleum products (RSMENV, 2016;Yakubu, 2017;RSMENV, 2019). Proximity to the creek, source of crude oil refining, activities of security personnel as well as climatic factors that determines dispersion and distribution of particulate in the ambient are likely to influence experience of black carbon and awareness of air pollution and toxicity to health (Ede & Edokpa, 2019;RSMENV, 2019 hence reduction in pollution. The significant difference (p < 0.05) of reported particulates on surfaces between pre-lock down and during lock times also agrees with reports of reduction in air pollution during the pandemic lock of cities across the world (Isaifan, 2020;Sneha, 2020;NASA, 2020;Aurelio et al., 2020, Rui & Acheng, 2020Shrestha et al., 2020).
Among the major sources of air pollution, respondents mentioned artisanal crude oil refining, and vehicular emissions most often than others. It was also observed that there were relative concerns about waste and tyre burning at dumpsites, industrial plants and activities of oil companies as sources of air pollution were expressed, with few persons reporting household activity as a source of air pollution. This is similar to previous studies (Howel et al., 2003;Thaddaeus et al., 2013;Mudi, Terracini, & Martuzzi, 2014;Maduka & Tobin-West, 2017;Ngo et al., 2018;Arku et al., 2018;Ede & Edokpa, 2018; RSMENV., 2019) in which outdoor industrial activities were mostly responsible for air pollution. Unlike in Europe where indoor air pollution resulting from household activities such as cooking and environmental tobacco smoke remains a major health threat (Hyunok Choi et al., 2010), resident of Port Harcourt reported lower contribution of indoor activities to air pollution. However, the sources of air pollution reported are mostly industrial and municipal dependent and less of individual contribution.
Hence mitigation could largely be subjected to Government and corporate industries policies and practices.
In this study, there was significant difference in breathing experience before and during the lockdown.
Majority of the residents reported high anxiety relating to their health and poor air quality before the lockdown. While most respondents reported poor breathing experience before the lockdown, majority reported good breathing experience during the lockdown. This implicates reports from previous studies (Lercher, Schmitzberger, & Kofler, 1995;Wallner, Hunziker, & Kienast, 2003;Thaddaeus et al., 2013;Afolabi et al., 2016;Arkuet al., 2018)  sensitivity and feedbacks from the pre-test/pilot. Lastly there were limited quantitative air quality data to triangulate with the survey findings. Thus, application of these findings to other areas needs to be done with caution while further studies remain necessary.

Conclusion and Recommendation
Majority of the respondents are aware of air pollution and its health consequences and have experienced soot haze in Port Harcourt before the lockdown. Unlike other places, younger people showed more awareness than the older age groups. Young people should be targeted as agent of positive change on air pollution. The need for massive health awareness and environmental education among females, artist and entertainers, the clergy and men of the security agencies remains pertinent.
From the respondents, the significant difference in breathing experienced and particulate matter pollution observed before and during the lockdown shows that, anthropogenic activities were largely responsible for air pollution in the city. Corporate industrial, especially crude oil refining and municipal sources were mostly attributed as source of air pollution, with household practices contributing less.
High level of anxiety before lockdown and the desire or clean air post COVID-19 lock down explains inhabitants' concerns over potential health effects of particulate matter pollution. Hence, the joint action of up to date Government's policy on air pollution and high awareness among residents could be effectively utilized to mitigate the persistent hazard of air pollution in Port Harcourt.