Effectiveness of the Institutional and Technical Planning Frameworks in Jos Metropolis, Nigeria

Most planning authorities in developing economies are not effective due to poor urban and regional planning systems making it almost impossible to control urban development and management of urban areas, leading to the haphazard urban development and poor management bringing about disproportionate distribution of resources in terms of basic infrastructure. It is against this backdrop that this paper seeks to examine the effectiveness of the institutional and technical planning frameworks in terms of Urban Development and Management (UDM) in Jos metropolis Nigeriaby identifying the factors that determines the effectiveness of the urban governance and management as well as identify and examining the urban planning system towards ensuring an effective urban controlled development and management in Jos metropolis Nigeria. The research approach adopted is qualitative and quantitative with deductive-inductive reasoning. The strategy used is “mixed method” and the instruments employed were questionnaires, face-to-face interviews, case studies documents reviewed with planning authorities in Jos Metropolis, Nigeria. The quantitative data sets obtained were analysed using Spearman ranks correlation coefficient (rho) and the qualitative data were analysed using thematic and content analysis. Statistically, the results showed that the components of the institutions (UG) and technical (UM) all have very strong statistical correlation. Based on the study results recommendations are proffered to practitioners, academia and policy makers.


Introduction
Most urban environments are developing haphazardly, due to poor performance by the government and the planning authorities (Planning authorities) burdened with the responsibilities of ensuring controlled development that is eventually managed using an Urban Planning System (UPS) that is appropriate, hence, this paper seeks to examine the effectiveness of the urban planning system URP system to address urban planning problems, and their implication on the urban environment.
Effectiveness is defined as the measure of the performance of a person, organisation or institution to achieve the outcomes an organisation intends to produce and in this instance the planning authorities.
Development Control (DC) is one of the powers exercised by planning authorities over developments within their jurisdiction. Only Planning authorities are vested with this power under a country's existing planning laws. These laws ensure that developments are carried out in accordance with approved planning standards. The components to consider include; institutions (urban governance) and in this case the state and local government and technical (urban management), considering the planning authorities within the metropolis.
Effectiveness in these components is dependent on the following key factors: overall planning component, staffing process, development planning, career development planning, planning for and management replacement and restaffing, job assignment, process of supervision, training, needs of the organisation, organisational activities, legislation, conflicting internal priorities, master plan, quality improvement in the design and implementation of the policies (Baker & Branch, 2002;Morris & Ward, 2005;Egbu, 2007;Elbana, 2009). Selection of the appropriate basis for assessing organizational effectiveness presents a challenging problem for planners and researchers. There are no generally accepted conceptualisations prescribing the best criteria. Different organisational situations-those pertaining to the performance of an organisation's structure, the performance of the organisation's human resources and the impact of the organisation's activities-require different criteria.
The choice of Jos metropolis, Nigeria is informed by the fact that it is the administrative capital and commercial centre of Plateau State, one of the 36 states of the Federal Republic of Nigeria ( Figure 1).
The study area covers a land area of approximately 1362 km2 and it is made of up of six local government areas/councils (Jos North, Jos East, Jos South, Bassa, Barkin Ladi and Riyom Local Government Areas) which are jointly referred to as Jos Metropolis. It is located in North central geo-political region, 3 hrs away from the Federal Capital Territory (Abuja) by road. It lies between latitude 09° 52′ N and longitude 08° 54′ E. Jos is connected to other Nigerian cities by air, rail and road.
The metropolis is experiencing an increasing population; it has a population of 1,315,301 according to the 2007 with a growth rate of 4.5%. It is one of the planned towns (Bingel, 1978), it has grid and some residential areas in Jos have developed into slums over time. The region has become unstable due to violent attack by a group of religious extremist known as "Boko Haram" meaning western education is a Taboo. Unless the planning authorities become more determined to address urban development and management the situation is likely to degenerate. The theoretical underpinning for this paper is based on the Theory of Institutional Deficiencies (TIDE).
It was spearheaded by Martinsons (1998) who developed and explained the relationship-based commerce will prevail where rule-based markets cannot flourish due to institutional deficiencies.

Martinsons (2008) extends TIDE to show how the development of relationship-based e-commerce in
China has resulted from that country's lack of trustworthy and enforceable set of rules for doing business. The theory works within a planning authorities largely concern with the control of development that is anticipated to be planned. His theory suggests that factors such as personal connections (guanxi in China, blat in Russia, etc.), informal information, and blurred business-government relations (which also encourage corruption) will constrain the transition from the physical marketplace to online marketspaces. For the purpose of this paper it was considered in the case of the numerous planning authorities in the study area working towards achieving planned environment which end up with haphazard developments. It is against this backdrop that this paper seeks to examine the need for effectiveness of the institutional and technical planning frameworks in Jos metropolis, Nigeria with a view to suggest best practice guidance. This would be achieved by firstly reviewing the existing literature and secondly, collecting data and analysing it base on the effectiveness of the urban governance (institutions) and urban management (technical) of the case studies under scrutiny.
For the purpose of this paper the following are components to be considered; institutions and technical.
These components would be considered in terms of the performance towards ensuring a controlled urban development and management in the metropolitan areas.

Effective Urban Governance (Institutions)
Effective urban governance occurs when societal norms and practices empower and encourage people to take increasingly greater control over their own development in a manner that does not impinge upon the accepted rights of others (UNDP, 2002, p. 2). Governance involves interaction between formal institutions and those of civil society. It includes formal institutions (PAs) and regimes empowered to enforce compliance, as well as informal arrangements that people and institutions either have agreed to or perceive to be in their interest.
Governance is written and unwritten policies, procedures and decision making units that control resource allocation within and among institutions (PAs). New forms of governance allow individual organisations to contribute their strengths and talents, to discharge their collective responsibilities and to preserve and enhance the distinctiveness of the progress of a country at the national, state or at the local government level, which depends in no small measure on the quality of its governance. While a democratic government may lay the foundations for good governance, a vigilant and active citizenry is essential to is sustenance. "Governance" is the art of public leadership. There are three distinct dimensions of governance: a) the form of political regime; b) the process by which authority is exercised in the management of a country's economic and social resources; and c) the capacity of governments to design, formulate, and implement policies and discharge functions for the successful implementation of the policies for growth and development (Stren & White, 1989;Mabogunje, 1989;Mattingly, 1995;as cited in Corubolo, 1998).
There is a need for the standardisation of the provision of urban services, based on modernist master planning principles which was through the city government operating mainly by appointing government representatives and only in a smaller proportion by delegated powers of local government authorities which was identified at the central level and also social services and facilities delivery is a demonstration of the various solutions to the problem of satisfying collective social needs which include; education, health, housing, transport, water, electricity, energy supply and telecommunication amongst others (Stren & White, 1989;Mabogunje, 1989;Mattingly, 1995;Healey, 1995and Werna, 1995as cited in Corubolo, 1998Rydin, 2011).
The need for effective urban governance is not debatable because the urban centre is complex and needs a complex and diverse organisation and human intervention which is geared towards functionality and effectiveness (Baker & Branch, 2002;Yasin, 2004;Healey, 2006). This produces the urban complexity theory, which will be considered under the theories of development. For the governance response to the city depends upon what one's notion of the "good city" is, how the unevenness and openness of the city are to be negotiated, and how it should to be managed and regulated. This requires an understanding that cities are made up of different forms of order which clash, and that power relations exist and are portrayed in urban environments and spatial relations which react and produce those underlying social relations (Mooney et al., 1999). The major questions to answer here is how effective are the urban governance institutions?

Effectiveness of Urban Management (Technical)
The effectiveness of the urban management which is ensured carried out development control, monitoring development and ensuring maintenances of development within different jurisdictions using appropriate plans and by ensuring implementation. The planning authorities are responsible for the implementation of plans to control development. This could be in form of the various aspects of the urban environment addressing different problems for instance transportation, waste management, housing and drainage amongst others.
These problems could have been highlighted in the existed plan and when proposals are made its directed to such problems and the planning authority in charge would be responsible for the management of the related problem. The question is; has this been achieved in the study area under scrutiny? What are the weaknesses, what is lacking and what is needed, etc. Land-use planning has not fully incorporated environmental values or safe guarded protected areas from the negative impacts of developments seen in the prevailing social and economic problems in the country (Aluko, 2004). It is evident in the uncontrolled and unguided urban development and management in towns and cities where commensurate provision of community facilities and infrastructure services have been neglected (Oyesiku, 2001;Anderson, 2001;and Aluko, 2004;Agbola, 2004;Fidelis, 2005 Jos Metropolis operates in the context of Nigeria under the 1992 URP, that apportions the state the power to prepare the master plan for urban areas in state capitals, hence, the issues raised in Nigeria (urban, cities) are all replicated in Jos Metropolis, Nigeria. The issues in question are linked to the explosion in the spatial coverage due urbanisation processes that encroach on nearby agricultural land in areas where land use control is grossly ineffective and poor urban management practices abound leading to haphazard development in most urban areas in most developing countries (Uyanga, 1982;Alokan, 2004;Olatubara et al., 2004;Olokesusi, 2004;Olufemi, 2004;Jiriko, 2007).
The effectiveness of urban management which makes up the technical section of this paper is involved with the consideration of the consequences of long standing neglect, wrong and poor performance by stakeholders and planners in planning authorities being responsible for the rise in chaotic and disorganised urban settings, in order to deliver cost effective maintenance in any economy. More details on the discussion on urban management (Technical).

Method
The approach adopted for this paper is the quantitative and qualitative with a deductive-inductive reasoning using the case study embedded mixed method design. The qualitative based evidence from 30 semi-structured face-to-face interviews with town planners working in the 9 case studies (planning authorities) from the documents reviewed operating within Jos Metropolis, Nigeria. One hundred and seventy three questionnaires were distributed to gather the opinion and views of town planners and this number represents the entire population of planners within the Jos Metropolis working in the nine planning authorities purposively sampled for the study. One hundred questionnaires were returned representing 58% returned rate. Based on response rate the Cronbach's Alpha of the data shows coefficient used to test for reliability or consistency. Alpha coefficient ranges from 0-1 in value, where 0.5 is low and 0.9 is high and desirable. The Alpha value obtained is 8.1 which is appropriate.
Multiple sampling methods were adopted to enhance the multiple methods of data collection bringing validity and reliability to the study. The snowball, Purposive and Convenience sampling methods were employed for the Face-to-face interview, documents and nine planning authorities respectively. The thematic and content analyses were used to analyse the face-to-face interviews and archive documents.
Whilst, that is the case with the qualitative data, the quantitative data from the questionnaires returned was analysed using spearman ranks correlation coefficient (rho). The study area is the Jos Metropolis, Nigeria an old Tin-mining area that was inhabited by different tin mining companies in the 1904s and having a well-designed grid layout over the years. The metropolis now experienced a haphazard development, leading to the sprawling of the urban metropolis and the capital of Plateau state, Nigeria.
The evidences are provided and presented under the key components; institutions and technical in this paper.

Urban Governance (Institutions) Component of the UPS
Statistically, the variables have a positive relationship with each other to determine the effectiveness of the urban governance (institutions) which eventually determines the control of urban development and management in the metropolis. Therefore, it means that it is effective. The result shows that there is effective control in the urban development and management and it could be seen negating the fact on ground. See Table 1. as it is unable to help in controlling the rate of urban development and its management in the Metropolis.
This situation when compared with the Greater London Authority (GLA) in the UK, Review,

2005-2006, Johannesburg Development Authority (South Africa), and Kolkata development Authority
in (India) observed that all these other planning authorities were mostly funded by direct government grant and it is also a perceptive authority, with some money collected and allocated from the Local Council Tax.
It also works closely with the media thereby creating awareness to the public and any activity of the GLA and others the public is been informed about the way forward in the control of development.
Whilst, this is the case in GLA, the case is different in Jos Metropolis, Plateau State, Nigeria as the planning authorities do not work closely with the media houses except on special invitation to cover their activities and broadcast, thereby creating awareness of development control within the study area.
Hence, the level of awareness by the public, about the activities of the planning authorities, is very minimal (low).
Furthermore, there is no direct contact between the people and the Government as well as the Planning authorities under each of the tiers that operate. Again, this has also given way to the non-participation of major stakeholders (broad-based). Seen in the way the proposed GJUMP was prepared, little of the input and opinions of stakeholders was included in the plan, as 70% of the respondents highlighted stating that broad based stakeholder involvement should be employed rather than the master-planning approach this was also confirmed in the document Sustainable Cities Programme (p. 5).

Interestingly, this statement shows that Master Planning (MPG), which is utilised in Jos Metropolis
Nigeria, calls for a framework for coordination. This is what obtains in most European urban planning systems and is typical in areas such as England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland (Great Britain), Germany, Portugal, Italy and Poland amongst others.
The consistency in governance to continue with development control is a major problem, each government that is elected tries to start from an entirely different point. Government administration has different areas of emphasis and is not interested in continuation of the previous administration. The (institution) is enhanced by the government in situ, which is at the state or local government level, which subsequently managed by the planning authorities within their domain.

Whilst in master planning MPG stakeholders might not necessarily be involved in Spatial Planning
(SPG) the stakeholders are fully involved as the approach employed is bottom-up problem solving rather than top-down decision which has been the order of the day. The consistency in governance has ensured continuity over time; hence, no gap is created for any lapse in the control of urban development and management.

Urban Management (Technical) Component of the Urban Planning System
The variables have a positive relationship (statistical) with each other to determine the effectiveness of urban management (technical) which are the main elements of development control for effective urban development and management in the metropolis.
The positive relationship obtained from the analysis shows effectiveness in urban management, but why is there a high level of haphazard development leading to urban sprawling within the metropolis and its environs? The output of the analysis is a matrix giving the correlation coefficient between the variables (1.0, .52, .67, .51, .59), underneath is the significance value of this coefficient (0.01). The significant value for this correlation is less than 0.05.
There is a problem with the development control and planning authorities to control development at all the levels considered. Non-compliance with the regulations by both developers and development control staff in planning authorities has remained high as there have been problems such as; control of height, space and density. Due to non-compliance or adherence to set standards the planning authorities Sections in local government. They coordinate the processing of the land titles ensuring that encroachment cases are sorted out as well as the preparation and production of layouts.
There is a need for the improvement and effectiveness of Lands Sections in local governments as the  (2005)(2006).
Subsequently, as way of identification of the issuance of a notice the structures are marked with either a red or yellow "X" depending on the team that serves the notice see Figures 1 & 2.

Discussion
The implication of Figures 1 & 2  About 75% of the respondents feel that this is due to the nature of the planning approach in that the system is not effective having rigid approach and not meant for an increasing population. The   Planning conditions are imposed to ensure standards are met by the developer in order for acceptable developments to be produced. Sometimes, planning permission is granted subject to the applicant entering into a legal agreement depending on which act is in place at the time.
Finally, this paper discussed the data presentation, analysis and the findings regarding the effectiveness of the urban planning system of the Jos Metropolis and the following was revealed; The Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient (rho) was used to analyse the variables that determined the components of the urban planning system such as UPS and the following were obtained;  There is a very strong statistical correlation between the institutions (UG) but no effective control of UDM due to poor funding, inconsistency in governance, lack of awareness about DC, poor publicity about DC and the non-involvement of stakeholders.
 There is a very strong statistical correlation between the technical (UM) section and no effective control of Urban Development and Management due to the conflict of functions, roles and responsibilities, encouraged by the planning approach adopted by the Planning authorities having similarities to their functions, responsibilities and roles.
Based on these the following recommendations were made; 1) Adequate funding should be made available to the planning authorities in Jos metropolis while policies concerning the governance should be enshrined in the law to avoid inconsistency in governance. Campaigns and creating awareness and publicity about Development Control and the involvement of stakeholders should be enhanced.
2) The functions, roles and responsibilities for all the planning authorities should be clearly spelt out to avoid conflict and the adoption of appropriate planning approach by the Planning authorities for effective urban development and Management due within the metropolis.