Non Implementation of the Greater Jos Urban Master Plan: Options and Strategies

This paper seeks to review the non-implementation of the Greater Jos Urban Master plan, considering some options and strategies. It was carried out by examining the current master planning approach and master planning-cum-spatial planning. The research strategy used is “mixed method” with a deductive-inductive reasoning. Multiple sampling methods were adopted; the snowball to get 30 Town planners working in the 9 case studies (planning authorities) to be engaged in the face-to-face interview, Purposive and Convenience sampling methods were employed to select over 90 documents on planning authorities and implementation of master plan in Jos, metropolis, Nigeria. The instruments employed were face-to-face interviews and review of archived documents on the implementation of master plans and other options. The data obtained through the face-to-face interviews and the 90 archive documents were analysed using the thematic and content analyses. The results obtained revealed that the implementation of the proposed greater Jos Urban master plan was affected by unproved legislations, the plethora of planning authorities covering the planning region and inadequate funding as well as its phasing. Hence the consideration of the strategies to employ for the implementation of plans which concluded with the recommendations to help practitioners (Town Planners), policy makers (Legislators in the area of planning) and the academia.


Introduction
The approach of planning practice adopted by Federal, State and Local government areas in Nigeria and most developing countries is a major problem in physical planning administration (Wapwera, 2014). Planning authorities with few qualified Town Planners leading to little impact in promoting efficient urban and regional development (Oyesiku, 2004). It is undoubtedly clear that the practice of urban and regional planning in Nigeria has not succeeded in the amelioration of the physical planning problems of the Metropolitan cities. This could be seen in most cities in Nigeria where the tools employed to manage the regions are highly inadequate. The master planning approach is still the planning method being adopted at both State and Local Government Areas in Nigeria as observed by Oyesiku (2004) and Jiriko (2007).
Nyambo (2010) observed that the inability to bring about sustainable development has always been affected by the lack of sustainable urbanisation and an appropriate planning approach which is not suitably implemented. The major problems have always been rapid urbanisation, growth of slums and public investment could be carefully planned in the context of a finite long term plan. Rapid population growth, lack of infrastructure and service, shortage of funds and staff in the typical developing country city, requires a more dynamic planning process in which priorities have to be continually assessed and reassessed in the light of the available resources (Jiriko, 2008;Litman, 2009). Farvacque and Mc Auslan (1992) argued that master plans take unnecessarily long time to be prepared and seldom offer guidance on the phasing and techniques of implementation; they seldom evaluate cost of development they propose or try to determine how they could be financed. These master plans also pay little or no attention to the necessary resource allocation and financial feasibility of policies and programmes. Both criticisms shows that master plans are seldom based on realistic appraisals of the city's economic potential or likely population growth; and also that communities, community leaders and implementation agencies are seldom meaningfully involved in the master planning process. These scenarios are evident in our city (Jos Metropolis, Nigeria)-Check our Greater Jos Urban Master Plan (2008)(2009)(2010)(2011)(2012)(2013)(2014)(2015)(2016)(2017)(2018)(2019)(2020)(2021)(2022)(2023)(2024)(2025). Master plans are expected to be constantly updated but for their static nature cannot keep with the dynamic process of the city growth in most developing countries, with Nigeria inclusive.
Cullingworth (1982) argues that the failure of master planning in America is attributed to the fact that there is a defeat in the concept (Master Planning) and that the process of urban and regional planning as practised in the United States for many years is faulty. This fact has been up held in Nigeria for so long to the flaws of the end-state master plan in vogue. On the factual performance of the master plan city plans, Branch (1974) revealed that few master plans have significantly shaped the development of cities in United States of America. Further illustrations show that just one year after the master plan publications are printed, they usually outmoded in importance respect and significantly less relevant, not to considered it been kept for a long time not even pass in to law for over ten years as it is the case of Jos Metropolis, Nigeria currently; not forgetting the fact that development is never static in the last ten years and even more. Master planning has been a wishful rather than productive enterprise, as it and imaginary constructs, which represent physical objects and both their external and internal relationships in space: the emphasis is restricted to analysis of the spatial structure, urban form and land use patterns as argued by Rose (1974).

Options: Spatial and Master Planning
The advance learners Dictionary, 6 th Edition, 2000 defines option as something that can choose to have or do; freedom to choose what you do. There are various options open to planners to address the problems in most urban areas. One of the choice planners make when using varying planning approaches could be spatial planning. It is the choice which is thought to be the best and involves less effort and difficulty and achieving a set goal.

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In the United Kingdom (Britain), spatial planning is being adopted as a system of planning and it is characterised by the following: Dynamic and timely policy and decision making, Inclusive and effective community engagement and collaboration, integration and joining-up, positive, evidence-based reasoning, Urban sustainable development and Climate change and the numerous interventions (ODMP, 2006). This is aimed at addressing the menace and the implication of urban problems. The role of spatial planning is in the investment and provision of basic infrastructure required for growth and development of urban areas in different regions of both developed and developing countries, which is achieved by the adoption of spatial planning principles.
Local Government Association (2001) and National Assembly for Wales (2004) defined spatial planning as the act of making available what is supposed to be where it should be in any given physical environment. This is made possible through the strategic growth point considered through the governance and management. Hence, Healey (2004) also reiterated the fact that spatial planning is succeeding and flourishing in Britain, because it is without some changes in political, culture and institutional design. Hence, it is worth the while, if Nigeria would borrow a leave.
The experience of most developing countries about urban planning is different, as the urban master planning system approach is widely adopted or utilised. It is a comprehensive long range plan intended to guide growth and development of a community or region. It emphases on proposals about the community's population, economy, housing and basic infrastructure as well as land use which are analysed and included, and recommendations are made. It is based on public input, surveys, planning initiatives, existing development, physical characteristics, and social and economic conditions. The master planning system over the years has proven to be highly insufficient to guide physical development in Nigeria (Oyesiku, 2001;Anderson, 2001;Agbola, 2004;Aluko, 2004;Olatubara et al., 2004;Stewart, 2006;World Bank, 2009;United Nations, 2010). Master planning has actually imparted very little on their growth and town planners had become very unpopular and stressed out (frustrated) as the master plans have failed and they were unable to identify the immediate causes.
The chronology of planning events in Nigeria was carefully considered and a number of issues identified giving the characteristics of the colonial and post-colonial eras with the plethora of planning agencies, adoption of ad hoc committees to do the task that is meant for the professionals in the built and physical planning environment. A careful consideration of the constraints that have affected the planning system would go a long way in bringing about the effectiveness of the system over time and the factors that have placed most developing countries under an undue disadvantage. Goldratt (2004) and Vidal (2008) observed that constraints affects the goal of any programme whether internal or external. There are different types of internal constraints (Equipment, people, plans and policy) and external constraints this is true for the planning system under scrutiny. Goldratt (2004)  constraints experienced by many countries, organisations and authorities amongst others in trying to implement their policies (Gupta, 2001;Goldratt, 2004;Dung-Gwom, Hirse, & Pwat, 2008).
Effectiveness in the planning system is dependent on the following key areas: Overall planning component, Staffing process, Development planning, Career development planning, Planning for and management replacement and restaffing, Job assignment, Process of supervision, Training, Needs of the organisation, Organisational activities, Legislation, Conflicting internal priorities, Master plan, Quality improvement in the design and implementation of the policies (Baker & Branch, 2002;Egbu, 2007;Elbana, 2009).
Selection of the appropriate basis for assessing organizational effectiveness presents a challenging problem for planners in the planning authorities. There are no generally accepted conceptualisations prescribing the best criteria for the measurement of effectiveness. The situations in planning authorities-pertaining to the performance of the planning structure, human resources, and the impact of the organisation's activities-requiring different criteria to meet the main objectives of the master planning system in Jos metropolis, Nigeria.
Cunningham (1998)  There are requirements for the evaluation of different aspects of effectiveness. For the purpose of this paper the emphasis would be on systems resource (Human and natural resources), managerial process (expertise, experience, staffing and funding) and structural functional (Planning authorities in Jos Metropolis, Nigeria). The strong hold on the traditional master planning system to achieve growth and development is common to most Nigerian cities such as Lagos, Enugu, Kaduna and even Abuja the capital city of the nation (Mabogunji, 2002;Oyesiku, 2004;Jiriko, 2008). So therefore to address the physical planning problem that is dynamic and complex in nature, identified in most Nigerian urban centres, there is a dearth need for the adoption of a planning system that is dynamic and complex in nature. This planning system should employ appropriate or adequate plans or policies to address the dynamic problems in the dynamic environment to bring about an efficient, effective and a well-structured (adequate vertical and horizontal coordination of planning activities) administrative framework for urban and regional planning development in Nigeria (Giddens, 1979;DiMaggio, 1988;Mabogunji, 2002;Oyesiku, 2004;Wong, 2006;Ekop, 2007;Healey, 2007;Jiriko, 2008;Martin, 2008;Rydin, 2011).
Furthermore, to give the distinction between Master planning and spatial planning, ten measures were considered to illustrate the difference between these physical planning approaches, see Table 1.  (1997), Vigar et al. (2000), Local Government Association (2001) and Yasin (2003).
For the purpose of this paper Spatial Planning (SP) is defined as a strategic activity that is concerned with the allocation and management of natural and human resources across space (competing uses for space of various scales), bringing about competition for space at various scales, creating value by making places and distributing the activities (social, economic, political and environmental), bringing to bear the interaction of different policies and practice for future development of any delineated geographical area and in this case the Jos metropolis, Nigeria.
Based on the characteristics of master plan and that of spatial planning two things are evident, the later has Dynamic and timely policy and decision making, Inclusive and effective community engagement, Collaboration, integration and joining-up, Positive, evidence-based reasoning as well as Delivery and outcomes and in addition sustainable development and Climate Change, which is clearly absent in the former.

Method
The mixed method strategy is adopted for this paper using the multiple case studies within the Jos Metropolis, Nigeria with a master planning tool to control physical development. The reasoning used is both deductive-inductive. Multiple sampling methods were adopted; the snowball, Purposive and Convenience sampling methods were employed for the Face-to-face interview, documents and nine planning authorities respectively. The qualitative based evidence from 30 semi-structured face-to-face interviews with Town planners working in the 9 case studies (planning authorities). This was to gather the opinion and views of Town planners within the Jos Metropolis, Nigeria working in the nine planning authorities. Over 90 documents obtained from these planning authorities operating within Jos Metropolis, Nigeria were also reviewed, all these were to explain the non-implementation of the Greater Jos Urban master plan. The data obtained through the face-to-face interviews and the 90 archive documents were analysed using the thematic and content analyses.

Master Plans
Once Master Plans are in place, they should give way to local plans which should provide a more the respondents were aware that the master plan had not been passed into law and the bill yet to be considered. This clearly implies that there still isn't a legitimate document for use, ten years after the proposal was lodged with the courts.
Bad governance over the years has affected urban development in the country. Plateau State, for example, has shown a tendency to disregard national policies and programmes, because it has not made any effort to adopt and implement them in the State. This was confirmed by the majority of the respondents and also reaffirmed by the work of Dung-Gwom, Hirse and Pwat (2008) Metropolis is negligible to say the least, while in other urban centres, no system for development control actually exists (local government). This is due to the magnitude of other mitigating factors such as; inadequate manpower, equipment, land tenure, outdated and obsolete plans, conflicting roles of public agencies and planning authorities, and even hostile confrontation with the urban local any form of loan or support. This haphazard growth has been captured by Figures 1 & 2 where uncontrolled urban development and management can be seen.

Figure 1. High Tension Cable Passing Over Plot
Source: Authors Field work (2014).  The role of the State government in the implementation such state law which prevents situation of governing one metropolis with 6 local governments, it could be seen through the planning authorities, using the legislation (Plans) and the funding of the implementation in phases, because the local governments fall within the jurisdiction of the metropolis. This pattern of law was adopted from the colonial masters (Britain) who left a structure for proper implementation of regional plans and now master plan.

Legislation
The Legal sections (legal documents) of the urban planning system becomes effective when the emphasis is placed on the planning legislation, using the following regulations and laws addressing the physical planning problems identified in the urban areas (Obateru, 2004;Oyesiku, 2004;Ekop, 2007;Ekop & Uyanga, 2007 (2013).

The Challenges of the Planning Authorities
The following are challenges faced by the Planning Authorities (PA) in the Nigerian urban planning system. See Figure 3. Furthermore International Financing Institutions (IFI's) are well-positioned to assist member countries in creating such an enabling environment. Guided by our institutional mandates and our member countries' own development goals, we are committed to helping raise an important part of the required flows, either through direct financing, leveraging our capital or catalyzing other resources. The global financing for development is determined to continue through the following: • Combining our knowledge and experience with our member countries' perspectives, offering policy and technical advice tailored to local conditions; • Building a global safety net by providing counter-cyclical support to economies affected by adverse shocks; • Helping countries implement actions for climate change adaptation and mitigation and disaster risk management; • Working to strengthen domestic financial markets and deepen financial inclusion; • Promoting the highest social, environmental and governance standards; • Attracting more concessional funding to provide grants and concessional lending to low-income, fragile and conflict-affected countries.

Phasing
The implementations of plans are usually structured in phases marked within specific periods of time either in months or years for easy coordination and management. The details of each stage are indicated in Table 3. Phasing is a fundamental aspect of any plan as it is a stage in a process of change or development and in this case the implementation of the master plan. The Greater Jos Urban Master Plan has three phases; Phase I, Phase II and Phase III. No single phase has been achieved as the master plan itself has not been enacted into a law of Plateau State (12yrs after) to guarantee its implementation. The study area is the Jos Metropolis, Nigeria an old Tin-mining area that was inhabited by different Tin-mining companies in the 1904s and having a well-designed grid layout over the years. The metropolis now experienced a haphazard development, leading to the sprawling of the urban metropolis and the capital of Plateau state, Nigeria and it is in dearth need of a planning approach that would salvage the situation.

Strategies for Implementation of Plans
For and plan to be implemented effectively after identifying and adopting an option be it master plan or spatial plan a set of strategies need to be adopted. A strategy is an action that managers (in these case planners) take to attain one or more of the organisation's goals. Strategy can also be defined as "A general direction set for the company (Planning authority) and its various components to achieve a Involvement of stakeholders and becoming more active in planning, e.g., Community (Vigar et al., 2000;ODPM, 2004).
As a sustainable framework for regulating the development, management and the use of Land (Harris, Hooper, & Bishop, 2002).
A plan for the protection of fresh water resources, etc. (Carter, 2007).
As a tool to influence environmental quality, generate and resolve the environmental problem (Harris, Hooper, & Bishop, 2002).
To solve local development framework problem (Wyatt, 2009).
Bringing about integration of policies for the development of the use of land and other policies and programmes which influence how they function eg the land use act and the master plans (Vigar et al., 2000;National Assembly for Wales, 2004;RITP, 2011).
Applied as a guide to change in land used as rights in any given geographical area, guide public investment infrastructure (Yin & Muller, 2010).
Positioning, Cultural, Configuration, Design and learning schools. All these schools are all characterised by a deliberate approach to planning, whereby there are pre-determined objectives to be achieved. The plans are aligned with the activities to be involved in and need to be realised in the objectives for each of the options.
Each one of these (school of thought) approaches is related to urban and regional planning in its unique way. By placing them in the context of their background, the design school sees strategic management as a process of attaining a fit between the internal capabilities and external possibilities of planning authorities. It is different from the planning school, which extols the virtues of formal strategic planning and arms itself with SWOT analysis and checklists because even though there are possibilities for the planning authorities there is an analysis of strengths and weakness to be able to strategized (Ricardian concept). The positioning school is very important because the three tiers of government with the planning authorities and having different roles, functions and responsibilities found at every level helps in addressing the problems at every level as well as specific issues. The enterprise school helps the planning authorities to play their roles of design and implementing the physical development plans (master plan).
The cognitive school helps in considering the minds of those who put forth strategies for implementation and try to see the rationale behind the decision taken. The learning school, which sees strategy as an emergent process, ensures that strategies emerge as the planning authorities come to learn about the physical planning problems as well as their strength dealing with it. The power school, which views strategy emerging out of power games within the organisation and outside it. By virtue of the law establishing it no single planning authority exist without powers and authority no matter the level within which it operates.
The cultural school, views strategy formation as a process rooted in the social force of culture, i.e., the way of life of the people involved in the planning system considering their norms and values. The environmental school believes that a planning authority's strategy depends on activities in the environment and the planning authority's reaction to these activities as planning is an activity-led process.
Finally, the configuration school, views strategy as a process of transforming the organisation it describes the relative stability of strategy, interrupted by occasional and dramatic leaps to new ones.
Drawing from all the various threads together, every strategic process has a link with other strategies enumerated in the various schools of thought. The plethora of planning authorities in most cities in Nigeria and many developing countries cannot be devoid of the adoption of multiple strategies in their jurisdictions to address the "wicket and dangerous problems" Rittle and Webber (1966) observed.
Some of those plans or activities are at organisational level, variously known as strategic plans; some of these activities are at operational level. Most organisational strategies following the strategic planning school, with the approach describe above. The examples typically found in most government national, state or local organisations follow the strategic plans, for instance; the master plan, spatial plan and development plan amongst others.
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Conclusion
This paper has set out to examine the non-implementation of the Greater Jos Urban Master Plan 2008-2025 with a view to make recommendations by considering its best options and identifying and examining planning strategies adopted to address the physical planning problem. It observed the following; 1) Implementation of master plan is in phases but in the Greater Jos Urban Master Plan 2008-2025 this has not been enacted into law to make it viable law or document to be utilizes to control urban growth and development in Jos and its environs. The implication of these is that the phase has not even been started 10 years after the preparation of the plan.
2) It is at a cost. The funding sources for the implementation of this plan are not clearly spelt out and as such it has remained very difficult to for anything to be done concerning the master plan. It was mentioned that the Public Private Partner (PPP) would be adopted to fund the implementation of the plan. Considering the processes such that the acquisition of land from the planning area, paying compensation, demolition of structure wrongly places in any sector of the plan.
3) The plethora of planning authorities in Jos metropolis makes it difficult for the master plan to be implemented as there is always clash of interest owing to the legislation that backs their establishment as to which planning other has the right and legal backing to implement the plan.
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4) The plan has not been enacted into law to be used as a planning document. It is not a legislation and yet the physical development in the urban environment that needs a plan to guide its development.
5) It is evident that the coverage of the metropolis (Greater Urban Master Plan) is wide making it difficult to be implemented for the following reasons; a. It is carved from 6 Local Government Areas; Jos North, South, East, Bassa, Barkin Ladi and Riyom.
b. Other Local Governments Areas have their master plan eg Angware -Jos East and Riyom.

Recommendation
After a comprehensive discussion throughout this paper, a number